THE OLD ENGLISH

THE OLD ENGLISH

INFLECTION

INFLECTION

Nominal inflection

Nominal inflection

The Old English noun

The Old English noun

The Old English noun was inflected for Gender, Case

The Old English noun was inflected for Gender, Case

and Number. Gender was not signalled on the form

and Number. Gender was not signalled on the form

of the noun. For instance such nouns as:

of the noun. For instance such nouns as:

stān

stān

‘stone’

‘stone’

lār

lār

‘teaching’

‘teaching’

hūs

hūs

‘house’

‘house’

have the same syllable structure, i.e. their rhyme

have the same syllable structure, i.e. their rhyme

consist of a long vowel followed by one consonant

consist of a long vowel followed by one consonant

in coda. There is nothing in the form of those

in coda. There is nothing in the form of those

nouns that would indicate that

nouns that would indicate that

stān

stān

is masculine,

is masculine,

lār

lār

is feminine, and

is feminine, and

hūs

hūs

is neuter. Such information

is neuter. Such information

was coded on the form of other elements of the

was coded on the form of other elements of the

Noun Phrase. Case and Number were cumulatively

Noun Phrase. Case and Number were cumulatively

indicated through endings whose number varied

indicated through endings whose number varied

according to types of declensions

according to types of declensions

The classification of the Old

The classification of the Old

English nouns

English nouns

The Old English nouns took many

The Old English nouns took many

different sets of endings. This was

different sets of endings. This was

the result of numerous historical

the result of numerous historical

developments. The results of those

developments. The results of those

developments can be presented in

developments can be presented in

the form of the classification of Old

the form of the classification of Old

English nouns. Two criteria are

English nouns. Two criteria are

crucial for this classification: a.

crucial for this classification: a.

historical, b. productivity.

historical, b. productivity.

The classification of the Old

The classification of the Old

English nouns

English nouns

a. The historical criterion: the classification was based on the

a. The historical criterion: the classification was based on the

formant in which nominal stems ended in prehistorical time (pre-

formant in which nominal stems ended in prehistorical time (pre-

Proto-Germanic). The prehistorical period nominal stems could

Proto-Germanic). The prehistorical period nominal stems could

assume one of the three forms:

assume one of the three forms:

(i) [

(i) [

STEM

STEM

… VC-

… VC-

V

V

] + inflectional suffix

] + inflectional suffix

(ii) [

(ii) [

STEM

STEM

… VC-

… VC-

VC

VC

] + inflectional suffix

] + inflectional suffix

(iii) [

(iii) [

STEM

STEM

… VC] + inflectional suffix

… VC] + inflectional suffix

The nominal declension based on the stem type (i) is termed ‘vocalic’.

The nominal declension based on the stem type (i) is termed ‘vocalic’.

It is characterised by a good many endings preserved in the

It is characterised by a good many endings preserved in the

paradigm. The condition favouring the preservation of these

paradigm. The condition favouring the preservation of these

endings is the structure of the nominal form where the vowel in

endings is the structure of the nominal form where the vowel in

which the stem terminated merged with the vowel of the ending

which the stem terminated merged with the vowel of the ending

thus reducing the number of the syllables. The nominal inflection

thus reducing the number of the syllables. The nominal inflection

based on the stem type (ii) is termed ‘consonantal’. The paradigm

based on the stem type (ii) is termed ‘consonantal’. The paradigm

based on this type of declension is characterised by a

based on this type of declension is characterised by a

considerable degree of syncretism. Type (iii) will be ignored for a

considerable degree of syncretism. Type (iii) will be ignored for a

moment.

moment.

b. The productivity criterion: major – the most productive and

b. The productivity criterion: major – the most productive and

minor the least productive (rather marginal)

minor the least productive (rather marginal)

The classification of the Old

The classification of the Old

English nouns

English nouns

VOCALIC

VOCALIC

CONSONANTA

CONSONANTA

L

L

MAJOR

MAJOR

STRONG

STRONG

MASCULINE

MASCULINE

STRONG FEMININE

STRONG FEMININE

STRONG NEUTER

STRONG NEUTER

WEAK MASCULINE

WEAK MASCULINE

WEAK FEMININE

WEAK FEMININE

WEAK NEUTER

WEAK NEUTER

MINOR

MINOR

MASCULINE &

MASCULINE &

FEMININE

FEMININE

i

i

-

-

DECLEN.

DECLEN.

MASCULINE &

MASCULINE &

FEMININE

FEMININE

u

u

-

-

DECLEN.

DECLEN.

ROOT CONSONANT

ROOT CONSONANT

STEM DECLENSION;

STEM DECLENSION;

r

r

-STEMS,

-STEMS,

-nd-

-nd-

STEMS;

STEMS;

-es-/-os-

-es-/-os-

STEMS

STEMS

The classification of the Old

The classification of the Old

English nouns

English nouns

Productivity criterion:

Productivity criterion:

85% of Old English nouns were inflected due to

85% of Old English nouns were inflected due to

Major Vocalic or Major Consonantal.

Major Vocalic or Major Consonantal.

The remaining 15% of Old English nouns made

The remaining 15% of Old English nouns made

Minor Declensions, either vocalic or

Minor Declensions, either vocalic or

consonantal.

consonantal.

As has been mentioned earlier, there is nothing

As has been mentioned earlier, there is nothing

on the form of the noun itself that would be

on the form of the noun itself that would be

responsible for signalling Gender. This

responsible for signalling Gender. This

grammatical category was signalled, among

grammatical category was signalled, among

others, through the forms of the OE

others, through the forms of the OE

determiner.

determiner.

The Old English determiner

The Old English determiner

The Old English determiner signalled such grammatical categories as

The Old English determiner signalled such grammatical categories as

Gender, Case, and Number.

Gender, Case, and Number.

Singular

Singular

Masculine Feminine Neuter

Masculine Feminine Neuter

Nominative

Nominative

se seo

se seo

þæt

þæt

Genitive

Genitive

þæs þære

þæs þære

þæs

þæs

Dative

Dative

þæm þære

þæm þære

þæm

þæm

Accusative

Accusative

þone þā

þone þā

þæt

þæt

Plural

Plural

Nom. & Acc.

Nom. & Acc.

Þā

Þā

Genitive

Genitive

þara

þara

Dative

Dative

þam

þam

Strong Masculine

Strong Masculine

Declension

Declension

Strong Masculine Declension will be illustrated with such nouns as:

Strong Masculine Declension will be illustrated with such nouns as:

st

st

ān

ān

‘stone’,

‘stone’,

dæġ

dæġ

‘day’, and

‘day’, and

finger

finger

‘finger’

‘finger’

SINGULAR

SINGULAR

Nom. se stān dæġ finger

Nom. se stān dæġ finger

Gen. þæs stān –

Gen. þæs stān –

es

es

dæġ –

dæġ –

es

es

fingr –

fingr –

es

es

Dat. þæm stān –

Dat. þæm stān –

e

e

dæġ –

dæġ –

e

e

fingr –

fingr –

e

e

Acc. þone stān dæġ finger

Acc. þone stān dæġ finger

PLURAL

PLURAL

Nom.

Nom.

& Acc. þā stān –

& Acc. þā stān –

as

as

dag –

dag –

as

as

fingr –

fingr –

as

as

Gen. þara stān –

Gen. þara stān –

a

a

dag –

dag –

a

a

fingr –

fingr –

a

a

Dat. þam stān –

Dat. þam stān –

um

um

dag –

dag –

um

um

fingr –

fingr –

um

um

As regards the paradigm of the word

As regards the paradigm of the word

dæġ

dæġ

, one can notice an

, one can notice an

irregularity: the paradigm is based on the stem alternation

irregularity: the paradigm is based on the stem alternation

dæġ

dæġ

[dæj] ~ daga/u- [da

[dæj] ~ daga/u- [da

γ

γ

a/u-]. This alternation is caused by the back

a/u-]. This alternation is caused by the back

quality of the vowels in the plural.

quality of the vowels in the plural.

Strong Masculine

Strong Masculine

Declension

Declension

Like

Like

st

st

ān

ān

were inflected such nouns as:

were inflected such nouns as:

bāt

bāt

‘boat’,

‘boat’,

cniht

cniht

‘boy’,

‘boy’,

dǽl

dǽl

‘part, deal’,

‘part, deal’,

hām

hām

‘home’;

‘home’;

gāst

gāst

‘spirit’;

‘spirit’;

hund

hund

‘dog’;

‘dog’;

tūn

tūn

‘enclosure’;

‘enclosure’;

cyning

cyning

‘king’;

‘king’;

hlāford

hlāford

‘lord’.

‘lord’.

Like

Like

dæġ

dæġ

are inflected such nouns as:

are inflected such nouns as:

hwæl

hwæl

‘whale’;

‘whale’;

stæf

stæf

‘staff’;

‘staff’;

pæþ

pæþ

‘path’.

‘path’.

Like

Like

finger

finger

were inflected such nouns as:

were inflected such nouns as:

engel

engel

‘angel’,

‘angel’,

dēofol

dēofol

‘devil’;

‘devil’;

fugol

fugol

‘bird’.

‘bird’.

Strong Neuter Declension

Strong Neuter Declension

Strong Neuter Declension will be illustrated with

Strong Neuter Declension will be illustrated with

such nouns as:

such nouns as:

s

s

čip

čip

‘ship’,

‘ship’,

sčeāp

sčeāp

‘sheep’, and

‘sheep’, and

hēafod

hēafod

‘head’

‘head’

SINGULAR

SINGULAR

Nom. & Acc. þæt

Nom. & Acc. þæt

s

s

čip sčeāp hēafod

čip sčeāp hēafod

Gen. þæs

Gen. þæs

s

s

čip-

čip-

es

es

sčeāp-

sčeāp-

es

es

hēafd-

hēafd-

es

es

Dat. þæm

Dat. þæm

s

s

čip-

čip-

e

e

sčeāp-

sčeāp-

e

e

hēafd-

hēafd-

e

e

PLURAL

PLURAL

Nom. & Acc. þā

Nom. & Acc. þā

s

s

čip-

čip-

u

u

sčeāp hēafod

sčeāp hēafod

Gen. þara

Gen. þara

s

s

čip-

čip-

a

a

sčeāp-

sčeāp-

a

a

hēafd-

hēafd-

a

a

Dat. Þam

Dat. Þam

s

s

čip-

čip-

um

um

sčeāp-

sčeāp-

um

um

hēafd-

hēafd-

um

um

Strong Neuter Declension

Strong Neuter Declension

Noteworthy is the fact that some neuter nouns take the

Noteworthy is the fact that some neuter nouns take the

plural ending in Nom. and Acc. as in, e.g.

plural ending in Nom. and Acc. as in, e.g.

þæt sčip

þæt sčip

‘the ship’ ~

‘the ship’ ~

þā sčipu

þā sčipu

‘the ships’ while others do not,

‘the ships’ while others do not,

e.g.

e.g.

ān sčeāp

ān sčeāp

‘one sheep, a sheep’ ~

‘one sheep, a sheep’ ~

eahta sčeāp

eahta sčeāp

‘eight sheep’. The answer to this problem lies in the

‘eight sheep’. The answer to this problem lies in the

structure of the syllable in the stem. In the case of

structure of the syllable in the stem. In the case of

sčip

sčip

the syllable is light, i.e. its Rhyme consists of a

the syllable is light, i.e. its Rhyme consists of a

short vowel and a single consonant in coda. Light

short vowel and a single consonant in coda. Light

syllable stems take plural endings. In the case of

syllable stems take plural endings. In the case of

sčeāp,

sčeāp,

the stem has a heavy syllable, i.e. its Rhyme

the stem has a heavy syllable, i.e. its Rhyme

consists of a diphthong and a consonant in coda.

consists of a diphthong and a consonant in coda.

Heavy syllable stems (i.e. the ones whose Rhyme

Heavy syllable stems (i.e. the ones whose Rhyme

contains either a diphthong or a long vowel and a

contains either a diphthong or a long vowel and a

single consonant in coda or a short vowel and a

single consonant in coda or a short vowel and a

consonant cluster in coda) as well as disyllabic stems

consonant cluster in coda) as well as disyllabic stems

do not take any plural endings.

do not take any plural endings.

Strong Neuter Declension

Strong Neuter Declension

Like

Like

s

s

čip

čip

were declined such words as:

were declined such words as:

lim

lim

‘limb’,

‘limb’,

hlid

hlid

‘lid’,

‘lid’,

dor

dor

‘door’,

‘door’,

col

col

‘coal’,

‘coal’,

ġebed

ġebed

‘prayer’,

‘prayer’,

bæc

bæc

‘back’,

‘back’,

bæþ

bæþ

‘bath’.

‘bath’.

Like

Like

sčeāp

sčeāp

were declined such words as:

were declined such words as:

word

word

‘word’;

‘word’;

hūs

hūs

‘house’,

‘house’,

bān

bān

‘bone’,

‘bone’,

sār

sār

‘pain’,

‘pain’,

tōl

tōl

‘tool’,

‘tool’,

wīf

wīf

‘wife’,

‘wife’,

ġear

ġear

‘year’,

‘year’,

land

land

‘land’,

‘land’,

folc

folc

‘people’,

‘people’,

þing

þing

‘thing’.

‘thing’.

Like

Like

hēofod

hēofod

were declined such words as:

were declined such words as:

tācen

tācen

‘token’,

‘token’,

wǽpen

wǽpen

‘weapon’,

‘weapon’,

tungol

tungol

‘star’.

‘star’.

Strong feminine declension

Strong feminine declension

Strong feminine declension will be illustrated with

Strong feminine declension will be illustrated with

such words as:

such words as:

talu

talu

‘tale’,

‘tale’,

l

l

ār

ār

‘teaching’, and

‘teaching’, and

sawol

sawol

‘soul’.

‘soul’.

SINGULAR

SINGULAR

Nom. seo tal

Nom. seo tal

-u

-u

lār sawol

lār sawol

Gen. þære tal

Gen. þære tal

-e

-e

lār

lār

-e

-e

sawl

sawl

-e

-e

Dat. þære tal

Dat. þære tal

-e

-e

lār

lār

-e

-e

sawl

sawl

-e

-e

Acc. þā tal

Acc. þā tal

-e

-e

lār

lār

-e

-e

sawl

sawl

-e

-e

PLURAL

PLURAL

Nom.

Nom.

& Acc. þā tal

& Acc. þā tal

-a

-a

lār

lār

-a

-a

sawl

sawl

-a

-a

Gen. þara tal

Gen. þara tal

-a

-a

lār

lār

-a

-a

sawl

sawl

-a

-a

Dat. þam tal

Dat. þam tal

-um

-um

lār

lār

-um

-um

sawl

sawl

-um

-um

Strong feminine declension

Strong feminine declension

Like

Like

talu

talu

were inflected such words as:

were inflected such words as:

caru

caru

‘care’,

‘care’,

stalu

stalu

‘theft’;

‘theft’;

lufu

lufu

‘love’,

‘love’,

andswaru

andswaru

‘answer’,

‘answer’,

giefu

giefu

‘gift’.

‘gift’.

Like

Like

l

l

ār

ār

were inflected such words as:

were inflected such words as:

ār

ār

‘respect’,

‘respect’,

glōf

glōf

‘glove’,

‘glove’,

hwīl ‘

hwīl ‘

while,

while,

space of time’;

space of time’;

þēod

þēod

‘people, nation’,

‘people, nation’,

bryčġ

bryčġ

‘bridge’

‘bridge’

Like

Like

sawol

sawol

were inflected such words

were inflected such words

as:

as:

frōfor

frōfor

‘comfort’,

‘comfort’,

čeaster

čeaster

‘city’.

‘city’.

Weak declensions

Weak declensions

Old English weak declensions are

Old English weak declensions are

characterised by a considerable syncretism

characterised by a considerable syncretism

of forms (consonantal stems). According to

of forms (consonantal stems). According to

these paradigms were inflected masculine,

these paradigms were inflected masculine,

feminine, and neuter nouns. To a certain

feminine, and neuter nouns. To a certain

degree the declensions are similar to one

degree the declensions are similar to one

another. They differ slightly in one or two

another. They differ slightly in one or two

endings. Weak declensions will be illustrated

endings. Weak declensions will be illustrated

with such words as:

with such words as:

hunta

hunta

‘hunter’ for Weak

‘hunter’ for Weak

Masculine,

Masculine,

tunge

tunge

for Weak Feminine, and

for Weak Feminine, and

ēare

ēare

for Weak Neuter.

for Weak Neuter.

Weak declensions

Weak declensions

Masculine Feminine Neuter

Masculine Feminine Neuter

SINGULAR

SINGULAR

Nom. se hunt

Nom. se hunt

-a

-a

seo tung

seo tung

-e

-e

þæt ēar

þæt ēar

-e

-e

Gen.

Gen.

þæs hunt

þæs hunt

-an

-an

þære tung

þære tung

-an

-an

þæs ēar

þæs ēar

-an

-an

Dat.

Dat.

þæm hunt

þæm hunt

-an

-an

þære tung

þære tung

-an

-an

þæm ēar

þæm ēar

-an

-an

Acc.

Acc.

þone hunt

þone hunt

-an

-an

þā tung

þā tung

-an

-an

þæt ēar

þæt ēar

-e

-e

PLURAL

PLURAL

Nom. &

Nom. &

Acc. þā hunt

Acc. þā hunt

-an

-an

þā tung

þā tung

-an

-an

þā ēar

þā ēar

-an

-an

Gen. þara hunt

Gen. þara hunt

-ena

-ena

þara tung

þara tung

-ena

-ena

þara ēar

þara ēar

-

-

ena

ena

Dat. þam hunt

Dat. þam hunt

-um

-um

þam tung

þam tung

-um

-um

þam ēar

þam ēar

-um

-um

Weak declensions

Weak declensions

Weak Masculine: like

Weak Masculine: like

hunta

hunta

were inflected

were inflected

such words as:

such words as:

guma

guma

‘man’,

‘man’,

m

m

ōna

ōna

‘moon’,

‘moon’,

oxa

oxa

‘ox’,

‘ox’,

dēma

dēma

‘judge’,

‘judge’,

hara

hara

‘hare’,

‘hare’,

fōda

fōda

‘food’,

‘food’,

tīma

tīma

‘time’,

‘time’,

ġerēfa

ġerēfa

‘reeve’;

‘reeve’;

Weak Feminine: like

Weak Feminine: like

tunge

tunge

were inflected such

were inflected such

words as:

words as:

sunne

sunne

‘sun’,

‘sun’,

eorþe

eorþe

‘earth’,

‘earth’,

beriġe

beriġe

‘berry’,

‘berry’,

ælmesse

ælmesse

‘alms’,

‘alms’,

čiriče

čiriče

‘church’,

‘church’,

heorte

heorte

‘heart’,

‘heart’,

ūle

ūle

‘owl’,

‘owl’,

hlæfdiġe

hlæfdiġe

‘lady’.

‘lady’.

Weak Neuter: Like

Weak Neuter: Like

ēare

ēare

was inflected only

was inflected only

ēaġe

ēaġe

‘eye’.

‘eye’.

Minor declensions –

Minor declensions –

u

u

-

-

declension

declension

U

U

-declension

-declension

comprised masculine and feminine nouns. The

comprised masculine and feminine nouns. The

words to illustrate this declension are:

words to illustrate this declension are:

sunu

sunu

‘son’,

‘son’,

duru

duru

‘door’, and

‘door’, and

hand

hand

‘hand’

‘hand’

SINGULAR

SINGULAR

Masculine Feminine

Masculine Feminine

Nom. Acc. sun

Nom. Acc. sun

-u

-u

dur

dur

-u

-u

hand

hand

Gen. Dat. sun

Gen. Dat. sun

-a

-a

dur

dur

-a

-a

hand

hand

-a

-a

PLURAL

PLURAL

Nom. Gen. Acc. sun

Nom. Gen. Acc. sun

-a

-a

dur

dur

-a

-a

hand

hand

-a

-a

Dative sun

Dative sun

-um

-um

dur

dur

-um

-um

hand

hand

-um

-um

Like

Like

sunu

sunu

were declined such words as:

were declined such words as:

wudu

wudu

’wood’,

’wood’,

nosu

nosu

‘nose’.

‘nose’.

Like

Like

hand

hand

were declined such words as:

were declined such words as:

cweorn

cweorn

‘hand-mill’,

‘hand-mill’,

f

f

ōr

ōr

‘floor’.

‘floor’.

Minor declension – Root

Minor declension – Root

Consonant Stems

Consonant Stems

A small group of nominal forms had descended from

A small group of nominal forms had descended from

the prehistorical, i.e. pre-Proto-Germanic, form

the prehistorical, i.e. pre-Proto-Germanic, form

where the stem was the root, i.e. the root was not

where the stem was the root, i.e. the root was not

modified by any formant, and the grammatical

modified by any formant, and the grammatical

ending was added directly to the root. The structure

ending was added directly to the root. The structure

of such forms can be presented as follows:

of such forms can be presented as follows:

[

[

STEM

STEM

ROOT] + grammatical suffix.

ROOT] + grammatical suffix.

In prehistorical times the suffixes from which Genitive

In prehistorical times the suffixes from which Genitive

and Dative had descended had the vowel

and Dative had descended had the vowel

–i-

–i-

(-

(-

is, -i

is, -i

for Nominative Plural and Dative Singular

for Nominative Plural and Dative Singular

respectively). This vowel brought about the change

respectively). This vowel brought about the change

of the quality of the vowel in the root syllable

of the quality of the vowel in the root syllable

(UMLAUT).

(UMLAUT).

Minor declension – Root

Minor declension – Root

Consonant Stems

Consonant Stems

This declension comprised only masculine and

This declension comprised only masculine and

feminine nouns. It will be illustrated with such

feminine nouns. It will be illustrated with such

nouns as:

nouns as:

man

man

‘man’,

‘man’,

f

f

ōt

ōt

‘foot’ for masculine and

‘foot’ for masculine and

bōc

bōc

‘book’ and

‘book’ and

mūs

mūs

‘mouse’ for feminine.

‘mouse’ for feminine.

SINGULAR

SINGULAR

Masculine Feminine

Masculine Feminine

Nom. Acc. man(n), fōt bōc mūs

Nom. Acc. man(n), fōt bōc mūs

Gen. mann

Gen. mann

-es

-es

fōt

fōt

-es

-es

b

b

ē

ē

č m

č m

ỹ

ỹ

s

s

Dat. m

Dat. m

e

e

n(n) f

n(n) f

ē

ē

t b

t b

ē

ē

č m

č m

ỹ

ỹ

s

s

PLURAL

PLURAL

Nom. Acc. m

Nom. Acc. m

e

e

n(n) f

n(n) f

ē

ē

t b

t b

ē

ē

č m

č m

ỹ

ỹ

s

s

Gen. mann

Gen. mann

-a

-a

fōt

fōt

-a

-a

bōc

bōc

-a

-a

mūs

mūs

-a

-a

Dat. mann

Dat. mann

-um

-um

fōt

fōt

-um

-um

bōc

bōc

-um

-um

mūs

mūs

-um

-um

Minor declension – Root

Minor declension – Root

Consonant Stems

Consonant Stems

Like

Like

man(n)

man(n)

was inflected

was inflected

wifman

wifman

‘wife’;

‘wife’;

Like

Like

f

f

ōt

ōt

was inflected

was inflected

tōþ

tōþ

‘tooth

‘tooth

;

;

Like

Like

bōc

bōc

were inflected

were inflected

gōs

gōs

, ‘goose’,

, ‘goose’,

gāt

gāt

‘goat’

‘goat’

lūs

lūs

‘louse’,

‘louse’,

cū

cū

‘cow’.

‘cow’.

Minor inflections -

Minor inflections -

-es-/-os-

-es-/-os-

declension

declension

This limited declension comprised only three

This limited declension comprised only three

neuter nouns,

neuter nouns,

čild

čild

‘child’,

‘child’,

lamb

lamb

‘lamb’,

‘lamb’,

æġ

æġ

‘egg’.

‘egg’.

SINGULAR

SINGULAR

Nom. Acc. þæt čild (sčip)

Nom. Acc. þæt čild (sčip)

Gen. þæs čild

Gen. þæs čild

-es

-es

(sčip

(sčip

-es

-es

)

)

Dat. þæm čild

Dat. þæm čild

-e

-e

(sčip

(sčip

-e

-e

)

)

PLURAL

PLURAL

Nom. Acc. þā čild

Nom. Acc. þā čild

-r-

-r-

u

u

(sčip

(sčip

-u

-u

)

)

Gen. þara čild

Gen. þara čild

-r-

-r-

a

a

(sčip

(sčip

-a

-a

)

)

Dat. þam čild

Dat. þam čild

-r-

-r-

um

um

(sčip

(sčip

-um

-um

)

)