ON BILINGUAL LEXICOGRAPHY FOR YOUNG LEARNERS:
THE STATE OF THE ART
List of content
Introduction ……………………………………..……………………………………………..3
Chapter I: Lexicography and its scope …………………………………………………….4
Definition and historical background ……………………………………………..….4
Lexicography in relation to Lexicology………………………………………………5
Lexicography and Linguistics………………………………………………….…….6
The scope of lexicography……………………………………………………………7
Lexicography in monolingual dictionaries…………………………………………..8
Lexicography in bilingual dictionaries……………………………………………....10
Chapter II: Bilingual dictionary -general overview …………………………………..….13
Dictionary typology…………………………………………………………………….
Dictionary structure……………………………………………………………………..
Bilingual dictionaries for young learners……………………………………………….
Overview of selected dictionaries for young learners…………………………………..
Summary ……………………………………………………………………………….
Conclusions …………………………………………………………………………….
Bibliography…………………………………………………………………………….
Streszczenie…………………………………………………………………………
Introduction
This thesis is aimed at presenting the notion of lexicography and its implications for dictionary making as well as describing the idea behind creating various types of dictionaries with preliminary focus on bilingual dictionaries for young learners.
The author tried to gather basic data concerning lexicography in terms of a science as well as practical implications for its use. Another focus was placed on the presentation of dictionaries as individual items in constant process of creation and updating. Further on, different types and examples of bilingual dictionaries will be presented with the emphasis on young learners.
While presenting the dictionaries the attempt will be on reviewing and summarizing the usefulness and practical application of the reference material contained. Finally the suggestion as to the suitability of the given forms will be collected together with samples of entries for enhanced justification of the choice.
Chapter I: Lexicography and its scope
Definition and historical background
There is no single explanation of the term lexicography as various sources explain the term in differently. However, the most precise definition is presented by Burkhanov (1998) who claims that it is actual dictionary-making and lexicographic research, in the form of e.g. the science of making dictionaries. According to Akhmanova (1969) there are three concepts of lexicography:
the science of the making of dictionaries
the making of dictionaries in terms of describing the lexicon of a particular language
dictionaries dealing with a particular language branch of knowledge
In Hartmann and James one can find the following entry which states that the term lexicography is the professional activity and academic field concerned with dictionaries and other reference works, which has two divisions, one is lexicographic practice, often associated with commercial book publishing and the other is lexicographic theory or dictionary research, focused on scholarly studies in such disciplines as linguistics. The authors also form a clear distinction between practical and theoretical fields in the form of a graphic presentation.
LEXICOGRAPHY
Dictionary Research Dictionary Making
theory practice
history typology criticism use structure fieldwork description presentation
Aspects of dictionary research Aspects of dictionary-making
The above figure represents the division of Lexicography into theoretical and practical applications. Theory deals with the pre-work and gathering tools as well as choosing relevant data and criteria necessary for correct assessment of the choice of vocabulary items that will be later on, used in actual dictionary making. The practical part revolves around the methods and types of approaches applied in the dictionary making processes. Here the stress is on the selections of entries and their placement.
The term is derived from the Greek work lexiko, adjective from lexis meaning 'speech', or 'way of speaking' or 'word'. Lexicography is lexico 'word' plus graph 'writing' i.e. the writing of words.
The early lexicography served daily requirements of written communication among members of human communities that used different languages or varieties of the same language. According to Kirkness (2004) in many literate societies its tradition dates back to centuries with word lists and hieroglyphs on which word books in scripts were based; logograms, or letters, clay tablets up until the appearance of contemporary computers. The author observes fundamental and rather irreversible change in lexicography over the past 20-30 years, with the main focus on the impact of computers: the electronic storage of vast textual material in corpora and the varied electronic presentation of lexicological and lexicographical work representing a quantum leap in lexicography. (2004/p.54)
1.2 Lexicography in relation to Lexicology
Al Kasimi (1977) in his work compares lexicology and lexicography and comes to the conclusion that lexicology is the science of the study of word whereas lexicography is the writing of the word in some concrete form i.e. in the form of dictionary. He also claims that both are closely related and in the closer study the latter appears to be directly dependent and can be referred to as applied lexicology. He supports his thesis by quoting Oxford English Dictionary/Lexicography where lexicography has been generally defined as the writing or compiling of a lexicon or dictionary, the art or practice of writing dictionaries or the science of methods of compiling dictionaries.
Al Kasimi contrasts lexicology with lexicography, and describes the former as studying the word as a part of the system whereas in lexicography it is studied as an individual unit in respect of its meaning and use from the practical point of its use by the reader. The focus is on possibilities of learning the language or comprehending texts in it or for any other purpose such as checking correct spelling, pronunciation etc. A word may have different and varied characteristic, all of which may not be needed by a lexicographer. Their work is guided more by the purpose of the dictionary and the type of audience. The words of the lexical system are presented in a way so as to make it more practically useable in real life situation, an example of which can be actual speech.
Akhmanova (1972) presents similar observations in the form of an argument that lexicology provides the theoretical basis of lexicography. The lexicographer in spite of possessing the knowledge of all the semantic details of a lexical unit might, at times, be forced to undertake such decisions and include such features in the definition which might be his own observations. In lexicology the study of words is objective, governed by the theories of semantics and word formation. There is no scope for individual aberrations. In lexicography, in spite of all the best attempts on the part of the lexicographer, many definitions become subjective, i.e. they are not free from the bias of the dictionary maker.
1.3 Lexicography and Linguistics
As it has been already noted the main focus of lexicography is on the `word' which is studied in various aspects of linguistics. Lexicography does not only relate to linguistics but it is an applied discipline under it. The practical problems of lexicography are solved by the application of the researches of linguistic works. The entire work of a lexicographer, from the selection of entries, fixation of head words, the definition of words to the arrangement of meanings and entries, is supported by the work of different aspects of linguistics. One of the most widely accepted criteria for selection of entries in many dictionaries is usually frequency count. The frequency of head words used by a lexicographer is based on the canonical or the most frequently occurring form of a word. This is found out from the grammatical study of a language. For written languages and those with established grammatical traditions the problem of selection of the head word is not as complex as in the case of unwritten languages.
In terms of providing spelling and pronunciation rules of words in their dictionaries lexicographers are supported by the phonetic study of a language, grammatical formations are to be depended on the morphological analysis of a language.
Historical linguistics serves the purpose of determining the central meaning of a polysemous word. Etymology provides a clue to decide the basic meaning. In the fixation of the number of meanings and their interrelationship the lexicographer has to take recourse to the linguistic methods of set collocations, valence and selective restrictions.
Historical linguistics, especially etymological study, helps in distinguishing between homonymy and polysemy. Psycholinguistics also helps in providing material for vocabulary development which might be used for the preparation of the graded dictionaries.
All the above constitute for proves that a lexicographer is obligated to depend on the findings of different branches of linguistics, to a large extent. However, As rightly put forward by Urdang "Lexicography, in practice is a form of applied linguistics and although more theoreticians would be a welcome addition to the field, they must remember that their theories should be interpretable above all in terms of practicality." (Urdang, 1963, 594)
1.4 The scope of lexicography
As lexicography is often defined as the practice, product and the theory of dictionary-making, the major concept becomes the notion of a dictionary. According to European cultural tradition, a dictionary is regarded as an alphabetically arranged list of lexical items accompanied with definitions providing information of a linguistic nature concerning the object language which include:
pronunciation,
spelling,
etymology,
paraphrase of the lexical meaning,
translation equivalents in the target language,
derivational and inflectional properties,
valence,
syntactic structures,
and others.
The variety of such determiners cause problems with the correct assessment of some lexicographic items, thus McArthur in his work suggests the usage of two terms `micro-lexicography' and `macro-lexicography'. The former standing for the viewpoint of experts who claim that lexicography is an area of reference technology and taxonomy which covers alphabetically organized reference works giving information about the use of lexical items. In case of `macro-lexicography', it is believed to represent a more promising approach which does not only incorporate all types of reference material, but allows not to presuppose a sharp demarcation line between a dictionary and encyclopedia.
In his essay Igor Burkhanov (1998) distinguishes two approaches of differentiating the content of dictionaries. Close interrelation of terms `linguistic dictionary', `encyclopedic dictionary' along with `alphabetic dictionary' and `ideographic dictionary' is particularly characteristic for Eastern and Central Europe. This approach seems to be related to macro-lexicography with wider acceptance of different forms.
The narrower interpretation of the category encompassing all kinds of reference materials but encyclopedias; with the scope of lexicography limited to the process, result, and theoretical evaluation of reference works which are formed by alphabetically arranged listings of words equipped with paraphrases in the same language or translation equivalents, is particularly typical of the English-speaking countries. Here the assumption is that there is a fundamental difference between a dictionary and a thesaurus along with an encyclopedia.
In terms of different aspects of lexicography some points need to be taken into consideration and the compilation of well crafted dictionaries require careful consideration of all or some of the following aspects:
Profiling the intended users (i.e. linguistic and non-linguistic competences) and identifying their needs
Defining the communicative and cognitive functions of the dictionary
Selecting and organizing the components of the dictionary
Choosing the appropriate structures for presenting the data in the dictionary (i.e. frame structure, distribution structure, macro-structure, micro-structure and cross-reference structure)
Selecting words and affixes for systematization as entries
Selecting collocations, phrases and examples
Choosing lemma forms for each word or part of word to be lemmatized
Defining words
Organizing definitions
Specifying pronunciations of words
Labeling definitions and pronunciations for register and dialect, where appropriate
Selecting equivalents in bi- and polylingual dictionaries
Translating collocations, phrases and examples in bi- and polylingual dictionaries
Designing the best way in which users can access the data in printed and electronic dictionaries
1.5 Lexicography in monolingual dictionaries
In the current discussion of both lexicographic theory and practice learner's dictionaries come into particular focus, according to Włodarczyk-Stachurska in her article on EFL Lexicography. Three centuries ago monolingual dictionaries were regarded as only lists of words, which further evolved in the early dictionaries, such as Table Alphabetical of 1604 by Robert Cawdrey or Stephen Skinner's Ethymologicon Linguae Anglicanae (1671).
In terms of modern dictionaries that deal with broader aspects of a word there appeared The New Method English Dictionary (1935) by West and Endicott later on replaced by the Longman Dictionary of Contemporary English (LDOCE) and in 1987 Collins Cobuild.
Since their first appearance monolingual dictionaries have undergone numerous changes due to the fact that non-native dictionary users needed detailed guidance on specific aspects of grammar and usage of new terms. The set of features in dictionary macrostructure was presented by Cowie (1999) where he points out features which have gained the status of conventions.
The most important include:
controlled vocabulary - the emphasis is placed on the meanings and idiomatic usage of most common words with restricted defining vocabulary, both in the form of a list and simple vocabulary and grammatical structures
syntactic and grammatical information- an attempt to meet the decrypting needs of EFL students led to more precise description of grammatical categories
importance of examples- appearance of examples is seen as vital especially for non-native learners of English. The examples may serve as a model on which learners can expand their vocabulary banks.
The abovementioned dictionaries are of a semasiological nature, their attempt is to guide the learner from the word to its meaning or equivalent. Thus their major function is to help learners in the process of decoding. According to Bejoint (2000:83) the most important categories of dictionaries designed to facilitate the encoding operations are:
Semantic dictionaries- which most of the time stand for lists of words without any comments such as differences in meaning etc.
Monolingual-bilingual dictionaries- where definitions are in a source language with equivalents in the target language added by the end of each term.
Dictionaries of new words
Dictionaries of hard and/or words easily confused
Dictionaries of World English - dictionaries representing local varieties of English.
Corpus-based and computerized dictionaries
1.6 Lexicography in bilingual dictionaries
The earliest recorded trace of a bilingual dictionary dates back to eighth century Tibet, where `Mahāvyutpatti'- the Great Volume of Precise Understanding or Essential Etymology, was compiled. It was a dictionary composed of thousands of Sanskrit and Tibetan terms designed as means to provide standardized Buddhist texts in Tibetan, and is included as part of the Tibetan Tengyur. In terms of English bilingual dictionaries, it was not until the 15th century when genuine Latin-English and English-Latin dictionaries began to appear. With the development of print more and more dictionaries entered the market, in the 16th century first dictionaries of English and other modern languages like French, German, Spanish became available on the market. They gained enormous popularity and went through numerous reprints and editions in the course of time.
Hartmann in his work on `Teaching and Researching Lexicography' provides a basic typology of so called `bilingualised'dictionaries for various European languages such as English, French, German and Asian languages. Basing his research on other researchers he presents three subtypes of this genre:
Bilingualised learner's dictionary - an adaptation of a monolingual dictionary in which translation supports foreign learners of the language of the source-book in decoding tasks
Bilingualised teaching dictionary- foreign language glosses added to a monolingual dictionary help decoding by both native speakers and foreign learners
Bilingualised learning dictionary - the translated material added to the original text helps native speakers to encode in the foreign language
In the article `Lexicography' by Alan Kirkness a bilingual dictionary is said to be the most widely used reference book in second or foreign language learning at all levels. He distinguishes a few different types of specialized dictionaries such as dictionaries of deceptive cognates, false friends, subject-specific technical dictionaries, pictorial dictionaries, however, adding that the basic purpose of such reference material is the general translation dictionary. Headwords in the source language, presumably in the user's first language are supplied with translation equivalents in the target language. The author goes on to explain the fact that full equivalents only need listing while at the same time partial or surrogate equivalents require further specification or exemplification to ensure proper understanding. Passive dictionaries help to translate from the target language to the source language and active or so called productive dictionaries help encoding from the native language to the foreign one. He presents common appearance of bidirectional dictionaries e.g. Polish-English and English-Polish.
According to Nielsen (1994) a bilingual dictionary may function in a way to help users translate texts from one language into another, or its function may be to help users understand foreign-language texts which stands for the most important aspect for theoretical and practical lexicographers namely to define the application of bilingual dictionaries. In specific situations the users of these reference materials will require different types of data, exclusively selected to suit each case. A dictionary intended for translation support should include not only equivalents but also collocations and phrases translated into the relevant target language.
There are a number of bilingual dictionaries representing various formats and contents.
Printed dictionaries- the most common references, ranging from pocket size to full size volumes.
Handheld Electronic dictionaries- small devices that receive input via a miniature keyboard, voice recognition or a scanning device that reads printed text, and outputs the translation on a small LCD screen or speaks the translation audibly.
Dictionary programmes- computer software, often added in a form of a CD or DVD disc to traditional paper format dictionaries, allowing input to be processed by machine.
Online dictionaries- easy to use and widely available, however, often lacking in credibility of printed or computer dictionaries.
Visual dictionaries- rely primarily on illustrations to provide the user with a reliable way of identifying the correct translation. Visual dictionaries are often multi-lingual rather than bilingual, instead of containing translations between two languages they often cover four or more languages.
Chapter II: Bilingual dictionary -general overview
2.1 Dictionary typology
One of the key aspects of lexicography in the classification of dictionaries is "bearing a direct practical significance" (Shcherba in Srivastaba 1968: 119) to the preparation of dictionaries. The entire work of dictionary making from the planning stage to the preparation of press copy, at its different stages; collection of materials, selection and setting of entries and arrangement of entries and their meanings is largely governed on the basis of which the dictionary is classified. Dictionaries can be classified into different types on the basis of several criteria, varying from the nature of the lexical entry to the prospective user of the dictionary.
Hartmann recognizes that there are different approaches to dictionary typology and in his work expounds a principle that whether dictionary typologies are based on shape and content (phenomenological classification) or activity contexts (functional classification), the dimensions chosen depend on their purpose. (Hartmann 2001:69). He presents formal features which are rested on by numerous authorities, including aspects such as shape, size and the information categories covered in the dictionary in question or on pragmatic features.
The author continues with presenting different approaches, one of the most prominent being Malkiel (1962) who applied the distinctive features approach used in linguistics. He details three main features:
range - number of entries, languages and information categories
perspective - synchronic, diachronic or stylistic orientation, principles of organization
presentation- types of definition, verbal, and graphic examples, labels
Another author presented is Rey (1970) who developed more sophisticated typology so called `generic typology' basing his assumptions on lexicographers facing a set of decisions in the course of compilation. They include
drawing on corpus data or editorial intuition
using words or other grammatical units as basic lexemes
including the whole vocabulary or selected segments
arranging the entries alphabetically or thematically
concentrating on linguistic or encyclopedic information
presenting or omitting etymological details
providing citations or invented examples
In case of this type of classification Hartmann provides a critics of such choice of features due to some of the dichotomies not being mutually exclusive and his list not exhausting all possibilities. He directs his attention to yet another linguist Landau who aiming at enhancing knowledge of available dictionaries presents a practical taxonomy in terms of 11 aspects:
the distinction by languages - with many subdivisions and hybrids, however the basic ones being
monolingual dictionaries
bilingual dictionaries
multilingual dictionaries
the distinction by manner of financing- two types of financing the works either academic bodies or publishing firms creates a division between
scholarly dictionaries
commercial dictionaries
the distinction by age of users - results in various gradations ranging from children's dictionaries and school dictionaries to adult dictionaries
by size - this results in vide range of different dictionaries more often than not under one publishing house like Oxford, Collins, Webster, where the dictionaries vary from unabridged, through desk dictionaries to concise, compact and pocket dictionaries.
By scope in terms of subject coverage- different specialized technical dictionaries for restricted groups of users
By scope in terms of lexical coverage- different specialized segmental dictionaries ofr restricted information categories, such as dialect dictionary, etymological, pronouncing, synonym, slang dictionaries as well as dictionaries of neologisms.
By complexity of the lemma- creates genres based on grammatical status of units covered from the morpheme and word to the compound, phrase, idiom, proverb and quotation.
By primary language of the market- results in, according to Landau in distinction between native speaker dictionaries and the ones for so called foreign born, e.g. EFL and ESL learners
By period of time covered - presents the contrast between diachronic works ( usually scholarly period dictionaries) and synchronic works ( usually commercial general dictionaries)
By the linguistic approach - even though there is no always clear distinction, the dichotomy between `prescriptive and `descriptive' works
By means of access- creates various types of dictionaries such as
alphabetic dictionary
thematic dictionary, also called conceptual, systematic dictionary or thesaurus
picture dictionary
frequency dictionary
chronological dictionary
and others
Hartmann discusses the little progress in terms of pedagogical dictionaries or described by him reference works specifically designed for the practical didactic needs of teachers and learners of a language.(Hartmann 2001:74) The author distinguishes different types of dictionaries in terms of English language, starting with dictionaries for adult or young learners.
For adult or young learners
He claims that for a long time dictionaries for children have been neglected in dictionary research, whereas dictionaries for school pupils resemble reductions of dictionaries for adults with some exceptions that adapt pioneer ideas in terms of using frequency criteria in the selection of the word-lists and sense relations with illustrations as supplements of definitions.
For native speakers and foreign learners
Dictionaries for native speakers and foreign learners are said to be moving away from the native speaker only tradition and as an answer to that there are four British EFL-oriented dictionaries available around the world:
Oxford Advanced Learner's dictionary (1995)
Longman Dictionary of Contemporary English(1995)
Collins Cobuild English Dictionary (1995)
Cambridge International Dictionary of English(1995)
Monolingual or interlingual learner's dictionaries
Before, learner's dictionaries were seen as monolingual references with many subcategories and purposes, however contemporarily some linguists draw parallels between monolingual, bilingual and bilingualised learner's dictionaries. The author explains that the latter can be seen as a range of innovative pedagogical reference books for presenting interlingual information, notably the systematically arranged subject-matter dictionaries.
Bilingualised learner's dictionaries
James (1994a) in his work provides the readers with three subtypes of this genre. The first one is bilingualised learner's dictionary, which can be an adaptation of monolingual dictionary with translation assisting foreign learners in decoding tasks. Next one is bilingualised teaching dictionary in which the foreign language glosses added to the monolingual dictionary assist decoding by both a foreign learner as well as a native speaker.
The final type is learning dictionary where translated material added to the original text helps native speakers encode in the foreign language.
LSP learner's dictionaries
Hartmann claims that little has been done in terms of classifying `language for special purpose dictionaries', he presents views of other authors who claim there is a distinction between a learner's dictionary for specialist field and an advanced, fully fledged specialist dictionary, an example being Oxford Dictionary of Computing for Learners of English (1996)
Encyclopedic learner's dictionaries
The idea of a dictionary of cultural studies continues a tradition of dictionaries designed for foreign language students, mainly from Eastern Europe. The most prominent ones include Oxford Advanced Learner's Encyclopedic Dictionary and Longman Dictionary of English Language and Culture. According to Stark (1999:3) it is a `lexicographical hybrid which resulted from the cross-breeding of two other hybrid text types: the encyclopaedic dictionary and the learner's dictionary, and ends with an appeal for more research on it.'
Onomasiological learner's dictionaries
Onomasiology differes from semasiology, which starts with a given word and explains its meaning, in a way that we start with a given concept and find the most appropriate words for it. Most dictionaries are based on semasiological ideas while synonym and thesaurus type dictionaries rely on onomasiology leading the user to the exact word or expression.
Learner's dictionaries for reception or production
Another distinction is between receptive or in other words passive dictionaries and productive or active dictionaries. The first ones are designed to decode activities while the others are intended to support encoding tasks. For bilingual dictionaries such division exists in case of translating a text from the foreign language into the native language and translating from the mother language into the foreign language.
Pattanayak, a Hindu linguist, presents a classification of dictionaries based on several criteria, varying from the nature of the lexical entry to the prospective user of the dictionary. Below are presented some of the main criteria for his classification of dictionaries.
Density of entries: whether the word list is general or restricted and special or if it also covers regional and social dialects, jargons and slangs and archaisms
The number of languages involved: monolingual, bilingual, multilingual etc.
The nature of entries: whether it is lexical only or also encyclopaedic, the degree of concentration on strictly lexical data.
Axis of time: whether it is diachronic (dynamic) or synchronic (static).
Arrangement of entries: alphabetical, semantic or causal.
Purpose: normative or referential.
The prospective user: whether meant for the general reader to find out general linguistic information or for special users to know some special aspects of the lexical unit e.g. etymology.
All these criteria can be applied, sometimes alone and sometimes with others, for the classification of dictionaries.
According to different references major types of dictionaries cover divisions such as:
Bilingual
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2.2 Dictionary structure
A dictionary is not only a storehouse of the lexical information of a language. It also stands for an explanation for this information. The data should be presented in a dictionary in such a way that it is easily retrievable. The entries in a dictionary should, therefore, be arranged in such a way as to enable the reader to find the information quickly and correctly. `A good dictionary therefore', as Mary Hass (1967: 41) remarks, `is one in which you can find the information you are looking for preferably in the very first place you look. Nothing could be sillier than the silly assumption, for too commonly encountered, that it is somehow good for the soul of the user if he has to work hard for what he is looking for'.
Dictionaries differ in size and purpose. The structure and content of the entry also differs accordingly. The contents of the entry in a learner's dictionary may not be the same as in a general reference dictionary. The type of definitions, the number of illustrative examples and collocations differ in larger and smaller dictionaries. An entry in a historical dictionary has special features of presenting illustrative examples from different texts, elaborate treatment of etymologies etc., which are not found in ordinary general purpose dictionaries. An entry in a pronouncing dictionary contains nothing about sense discrimination or illustrative examples.
An entry in a general dictionary usually contains the following information:
Head word,
Spelling and Pronunciation,
Grammatical information or meaning (also inflected forms in some cases),
Meaning (definition, description or equation),
Illustrative examples (also illustrative pictures),
Derivatives,
Phrases and idioms,
Etymology,
Synonyms and antonyms.
There is no need for every single entry in each type of dictionary to contain all this data. Some may not provide synonyms and antonyms while others may add illustrative examples. The pronunciation may not be necessary for a monolingual language dictionary like Longman Dictionary of Contemporary English, meant for the use of a native speaker.
The entry can be divided into two parts. The first part is called lemma and includes the head word, spelling and pronunciation as well as grammatical information. The grammatical information can be treated as a part of the meaning. The second part presents the description of the lexical unit in terms of its meaning and usage. The first part may also be called the left hand and described part and the second part the right hand or the description part.
2.3 Bilingual dictionaries for young learners
The study of a foreign language resembles learning a new code, one that follows rules and patterns that learners will grow to recognize and eventually reproduce with confidence. At the beginning learners are to focus on finding and assembling these basic building blocks that are necessary to join the overall structure. While gaining knowledge students need to rely on teachers, course books, and reference material. Bilingual dictionaries offer insights of a contrastive nature: they help learners appreciate crucial differences between their native language and the language being learned. Students often do not use their dictionaries as well as they could. Teachers frequently complain of mistakes students make because of the way they use their dictionary, perhaps due to over-reliance or misunderstanding. Sometimes it is simply the poor quality of a dictionary that gets students into trouble.
Over the last three decades, English learner dictionaries have undergone a major transformation both in content and appearance. When comparing previous and modern editions, it is immediately obvious that dictionaries today look very different from what they resembled twenty years ago.
In terms of physical appearance, bilingual dictionaries have generally grown bigger in size and look more attractive, or at least more colorful, than their predecessors. Inside, the pages contain a lively mixture of text, inserts, tables, and supplements. Widespread use of color and illustrations convey a sense of fun and user-friendliness.
Nowadays, the publishers of all best-selling brands of dictionaries aggressively market their titles, confidently putting forward strong, and in many cases, well-founded claims. Accessibility, maximum clarity, and user-friendliness are some among many aspects of dictionaries, desired today. With a range of signposting devices, inserts, or extra help to navigate longer entries, today's dictionary designers and editors show, they fully recognize the importance of making dictionaries easier to use especially for younger learners who have only started gaining the basics of the language.
Also, most bilingual dictionaries aim at promising more than just words defined and explained. They claim to help learners acquire greater awareness of the language and to learn how the language really works.
A new, modern dictionary will almost certainly include extra resources, like a CD-ROM, often containing not only the dictionary text but also other materials such as a workbook, maybe a short grammar or a writing guide and so on. There might also be a website address where further help and material are made available by the publishers without extra cost.
Most contemporary dictionaries for young learners contain the presentation of information in a completely new format. An important factor that contributed to this development is the colour printing.
Colour is now widely used to enhance key features of the dictionary text and enable easier navigation. A dictionary with no text in colour nowadays can appear old-fashioned and hard to use, especially in case of young learners.
Information that was previously embedded and potentially lost in the text has been brought out and highlighted to ensure that users notice it. The use of typographical devices such as symbols, inserts, and shaded and boxed areas help break up the text. Pages look like they are made up of self-contained, manageable chunks of information.
In most bilingual dictionaries today, long and complex entries have been simplified and which enabled easier navigation with the help of clearer typography, colour, and summary windows mapping out the route to diverse meanings. This approach often applies to medium-size entries, which are introduced by inserts anticipating the key information users will find when reading through the entry.
Another change that can be observed is a range of tables with colour illustrations and photographs, which are included in order to provide help with different areas of vocabulary.
Using a bilingual dictionary as an encoding tool might cause serious problems, even for experienced users. The encoding user is always, to a greater or lesser extent according to their level of linguistic competence, exposed to misuse or misinterpretation of a term. The role of a teacher has to be to make young learners aware of the fact that a foreign language term from a dictionary often requires further cross-checking or referring to dictionary additional explanations. A user-friendly dictionary - and especially a bilingual learners' dictionary - must provide as much support in this issue in order to reduce the risk factor, lighting the reader's way as they work towards proficiency.
Good modern dictionaries for young learners, instead of baldly presenting the target-language equivalent of a given word, should first show the headword 'in action' - in a translated example sentence with no distracting meta-language. The example sentences should be designed to emphasize points relating to the headword equivalent; (e.g. the appearance of prepositional collocations of verbs, unaccountability of nouns, use of articles, grammatical behavior), which students need to understand and learn. Facing these example sentences, in a separate column, learners should find the translation of the headword used in the example, followed by notes in a target language that would draw attention to specific points, for instance: register, syntax, pronunciation and others.
The example sentence in a bilingual dictionary can exist simply to illustrate a given headword translation, it can introduce important collocational information or it can show a contextual overtone for which a new translation is required. In bilingual dictionaries designed for beginners and pre-intermediate level students, the status of the example sentence is somewhat different. Examples exist primarily not to provide a snapshot of headword behaviour, but as pedagogical devices. Although natural and idiomatic, they are designed above all to generate a translation that shows the headword equivalent in action. The words they contain are carefully chosen to avoid complicating the issue for the reader, and in most cases they are deliberately designed to make a point.
Reader competence and behaviour must always be taken into account by dictionary writers, and the systematicity and rigour usually associated with good lexicography need to be tempered by some kind of a degree of calculated pragmatism.
To an extent, bilingual dictionaries are not factual: they provide guidance rather than ready-made solutions, and it falls to the reader to use what they suggest appropriately. This demands prior knowledge both of the scope of the dictionary and of the nature of translation itself. Beginner and pre-intermediate learners do not have this knowledge, and the dictionary must take this into account. The content, structure and layout of a well prepared and structured dictionary should help its young readers acquire vocabulary in context. The examples are a backbone of a good reference material similarly to all good learning tools, it is supposed to know where the real problems lie, and provide guidance wherever it is needed.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
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