1. The role of word order in typologically different languages.
In linguistics, word order typology refers to the study of the different ways in which languages arrange the constituents of their sentences relative to each other, and the systematic correspondences of between these arrangements. Some languages have relatively restrictive word orders, often relying on the order of constituents to convey important grammatical information. Others, often those that convey grammatical information through inflection, allow more flexibility which can be used to encode pragmatic information such as topicalisation or focus. Most languages however have some preferred word order which is used most frequently.
2. Two main criterias for description of syntax, 3 main schools in 20th cent.
We can study sentence: 1. in isolation- context-free, traditional approach - Bloomfield school descriptivism. 2. in context - contexual - functional approach - Prague school.
3 main branches of syntax:
Context-free/ descriptive/ Bloomfield
Context-free/ generative - Chomsky
Contextual/ descriptive/ Prague school.
3. Explain definition of sentence.
Sentence is elementary speech utterance through which speaker or writer reacts to some reality concrete or abstract and which in its formal character appears to realise grammatical possibilities of a given language and to be subjectively i.e. from the point of view of speaker or writer, complete-idea.
4. Give the classification of sentences by function.
By function we have:
statements, questions, exlamations, commands which correspond to declarative sentences, interrogative, explanatory and imperative.
5. Explain difference between simple, multiple, compound and complex sentences.
simple sentence - contains only one clause
multiple sentence - contains more than one clause
compound sentence - contains 2 or more main clauses
complex sentence - contains 1 or more main clauses and 1 or more subordinate clauses
6. Give the classification of sentences according to the sentence members.
S - iV (Sun shines.)
S - iV - C (The sun is a star.)
S - tV - O (The sun melts the ice.)
S - tV - Od - Oi (The sun gives us warmth/warmth to us.)
S - tV - O - C (The people elected him president.)
7. Give examples of nominal clauses and identify the main and subordinate clauses.
Whatever he did was wonderful.
nominal clause main clause
He said that they were discussing the development programm.
main c. nominal clause
8. Give examples of adjectival clauses.
Those people who have not seen it.
main c. subordinate c.
Students who are intelligent understand adjectives.
subordinate c.
9. Give examples of at least 3 different adverbial clauses and identify main and subordinate clauses.
I shall be there when I'm ready.
subordinate c.
I wrote it because he was silly.
subordinate c.
He has given you more than he admitted.
subordinate c.
10. Explain difference between modifiers and qualifiers.
modifier - it follows the head and modifies it, e.g. old woman
qualifier - it preceedes the head and modifies ir, e.g. Old woman in bright red dress.
11. What is clause?
Clauses are sentence-like units and have the same structure as sentences but depend on the main clause and are one sentence member of the main clause.
12. Explain the basic principles of functional sentence perspective.
Functional Sentence Perspective - sentence is viewed as part of a broader communication process. It is analysed with regard of situations and context when it is uttered. Each sentence is realized close to general extra-linguistic situation of ther speaker and/or to the previously written/uttered sentences. Each sentence is in a way linked to the context. It is mediated by that part of a sentence which is called theme. It functions as a link and doesn't give any new information. The core of the sentence is that part which brings new information, brings communication forward. It is called rheme.
13. What is communicative dynamism?
Communicative dynamism - the degree to which individual sentence members contribute to the development of the communication.
14. What is thematizer and rhematizer.
thematizer - it is an indicator of theme, e.g. definite article.
rhematizer - it is an indicator of rheme, e.g. indefinite article.
15. Explain the difference between the subjective and objective ordering of theme and rheme.
subjective ordering - those are sentences with decreasing communicative dynamism. (Rzeszów Univeristy organised the conference.)
objective ordering - those are sentences with increasing communicative dynamism. (The conference was held in Rzeszów.)
16. What is the basic principle of Transformational and Generative grammar?
Transformational and generative approach - the sentence formation process based on certain number of rules and abstract structures (constructions). Chomsky describes internal structure of sentences as phrases.
Language as a system of rules which generate an infinite number of sentences out of finite number of words and by means of finite number of rules.
17. Explain phrase structure, tree representation and re-write rules.
phrase structure - presents relations between phrases; presents internal composition of sentences.
tree representation - a method of showing the internal structure of a phrase/sentence. It has the form of a tree with nodes and branches.
main node - mother
subordinate nodes - daughters
nodes at the same level - sisters.
re-write rules - the relations between internal structure of a sentence can be represented by re-write rules
S -> NP + VP
NP -> T + N
VP -> V +NP.
We can insert from the lexicon morphemes which replace these symbols.
18. What is the relation between kernel string and kernel sentence?
kernel string - it is a sequence of symbols represented by ultimate constituent of a phrasal structure
kernel sentence - it is a simple declarative non-negated affirmative sentence in present tense. We get it by replacing ultimate constituents in kernel string by morphemes.
19. What is the relation between obligatory and optional transformation?
There are certain rules to modify the kernel sentence into many other sentences. It is done by means of transformation rules. To get a sentence we need a one obligatory rule. Others are optional.
20. Give examples of one-element sentence. What are the usual reasons for their existence?
One-element sentences are those in which one element is omitted (it falls from the context).
`Teacher!'
`Non-sense!'
They are used to economise time and space (form).
21. Give the classification of verbless sentences.
verbless sentences
/ \
one-element two-element
/ \
thetic predicative
22. Give examples of one-element verbless sentences and two-element verbless sentences.
One-element verbless thetic sentence: Another water? (question asked by waiter)
One-element verbless predicative sentence: Off with him! Non-sense!
Two-elements verbless sentence: Quite human, these politicians. His father dead.
23. Give 3 types of apposition. What is apposition?
apposition - a non-sentence predication affected by juxtaposition (inserted directly) of a coordinate nominal element (it resembles sentence, it is a clause with weakened independence).
From semantic point of view we have:
- explanatory apposition
- classificatory apposition
- attributive apposition
24. Explain explanatory type of apposition + example.
Explanatory apposition - adding an expression which has a narrower meaning,
e.g. The third man, Mr Charles Wild, remained silent all the time.
He remained silent all the time, Mr Charles Wild. (not juxtaposed, separated)
enumerative apposition - enumaerating its components
e.g. The Scandinavian Nations, the Danes, the Swedes, the Norwegians boast about their economies.
25. Explain classificatory type of apposition + example.
classificatory apposition - more general than the member to which ot refers. Whole sentence may be qualified by an apposition - sentence-qualifying apposition or a word may be qualified - word-qualifying apposition.
e.g. He usually hit the object at which he struck, a very rare thing
Classificatory apposition might be evaluative (with emotional colouring).
e.g. I saw him yesterday, poor boy.
26. What is the difference between attributive apposition and the other two types of apposition.
attributive apposition - express the feature of the superordinate member, in contrast with other appositions, it is not equal to this member.
e.g. He produced a splendid diamond ring, valued 200, and offered it to her.
27. What is the difference between attributive apposition and appositional attribute.
Attributive apposition can develop into appositional attribute. Appositions are marked by commas (pauses) and in appositional attribute there are no commas.
e.g. He very rarely mixed with boys his own age.
Appositional attributes appear in copulative structures in which both elements have the same strength
e.g. king the emperor, city of Manchester
28. Explain absolute constructions.
Absolute constructions - they differ from appositions in not being dependent on any superordinate.
1. Verbless - two-elements clause - functions as subordinate clause
e.g. The war over, he returned home.
2 el. verbless c. main clause
2. One-element verbless absolute constructions.
e.g. He decided to ring her up, answer or no-answer.
29. Different ways of expressing unknown subject in English.
Expressing unknown subject in verbal sentences:
Prop-it! - formal subject, e.g. It is raining!
By passive sentences, e.g. W zamku straszy - The castle is haunted.; Pachnie tu fiołkami - There is a smell of violets here.
One knows
They say
It's believed
You can never tell
30. Explain the way of addressing people in English and its difference in Polish.
Grammatical person
In Polish formal forms are Pani, Pan, in English - you. In English it is preferable to use first names, e.g. John, could you? In Polish we refer to unknown or older person Panie Kowalski - last name.
31. Explain the relation between subject, theme, agent and patient in English sentences.
subject - developed from theme. In the earliest stages theme corresponded to agent of the action.
in the original structure: theme=agent=subject
Later passive constructions developed. In those subject is patient , agent was expressed by prepositional phrase. This meant: theme=patient=subject
Passive expresses the periphrostic constructions (by means of preposition).
32. 4 subtypes of verbal nominal predication.
When agent functions as subject and action as predicate we have:
- possesive - have functions as verbal part - to have a wash
- causative - verbal element is do, perform - to do the shopping
- adverbial - based pn prepositional phrase - to be in love
- attributive - adjectival qualification - The members of the party were rather critical at the latest decision of the leader.
33. Different ways of expressing passive-actional predication.
- passive -actional predication - using past participle form, to be+PP, get+PP, become+PP.
e.g. I suddenly felt that I was becoming bound hand and foot.
Prepositional Phrase - The house is under construction.
Perceptive verbs - At these words I found my heart beating violently.
34. Explain and exemplify the qualifying predication.
Qualifying predication - expresses certain quality which is assigned directly and explicitly to a person or a thing.
e.g. His career was short.
35. Explain the copulative type of qualifying predication.
copulative type - there is a verb which functions as a copula or link plus noun or adjective.
e.g. He is a dreamer. She is beautiful.
36. Explain the possesive type of qualifying predication.
possesive type - the noun is joined to the subject by a verb denoting possession (to have, to receive etc.)
e.g. She has a beauty. He had the wisdom to remain silent.
37. Explain and exemplify identifying type of qualifying predication.
identifying type - accomplished by means of expressions like it is, this is, here is etc.
e.g. This is a nice view. Here is my brother.
38. Explain the difference between the object and the adverbial modifier.
object - person or thing affected or somehow involved in the action expressed by verbal actional predication
adverbial modifier - describes and provides more accurate definitional meaning for another word, a phrase, or a clause
The object of verb may become subject in passive construction, adverbial modifier cannot.
e.g. People talked of a strange case. The strange case was talked of by the people.
I'm going to the town.
39. Explain and exemplify 3 types of accusative object.
Object of accusative type:
- affected - the action expressed by the verb affects an object that has already existed before the action started, e.g. He helped his friend.
- effected - the action of the verb results in the creation of an object, e.g. He answered a few polite words.
- temporary - it only exists for certain period of time during the action expressed by the verb, e.g. He laughed a short ugly laugh.
40. Explain 2 ways of expressing the dative type of object.
The dative object can be expressed by:
- position
- preposition `to'
41. Primary and secondary adjectives as attributes.
Attribute expressed by adjective:
- primary (pretty girl)
- secondary - converted from nouns (an evening paper, the gold mine)
Sometimes they exist side by side: gold - golden.
Nominative tendency - it can be quantitative (e.g. The rest of France. ) or qualitative (e.g. We hope that Japan will follow the wisdom of the British example.).
42. Exceptions to the rule that attribute preceedes its governing noun.
Attribute is before governing nouns, exceptions:
- words of French origin - prince royal, sum total
- adjectives ending in -able - the prettiest place conceivable
- special adjectives starting in a- - alive, abroad - used only in predication
- if adjective is stressed - every means possible
- if you attach additional qualification - she was an elegant woman and beautiful
43. Explain the difference between complements and adjuncts.
Phrases consist of heads and modifiers. Heads identify whole class of object, modifiers narrow down the meaning of heads.
Obligatory modifiers are called complements. Optional modifiers are called adjuncts.
e.g. Mrs Smith bought a present for Jenny in the Jenners last Tuesday.
\ / \ /
obligatory adjuncts
complements
44. Explain the reason for the ordering of complements and adjuncts.
Each head narrows down the selection of complements. Relation between head and its modifier is the relation of dominance. It is also called dependency. That is way complements are close to the head.
head
e.g. The cat shot into the kitchen on Sunday morning carrying a dead mouse.
\ / modifies verb
complements
45. Explain the test of transposition as evidence of phrasehood.
Identification of phrases:
Transposition - test based on moving sequences of words into different slots/gaps. These words which can be moved together into another place in a sentence (transposed) form a phrase.
e.g. This parcel is very heavy. (complement)
Very heavy this parcel! This very heavy parcel was delivered yeasterday.
What this parcel is is very heavy.
46. Explain substitution as the test of phrasehood.
Substitution - you can substitute a phrase by a single word or by any other group of words.
e.g. Barbara handed the intrigging results of the latest examination to Alan on Tuesday.
them
This large parcel is very heavy.
No, it's not. It is so. (so-substitution)
She is standing in the corridor.
there
47. Explain the test of ellipsis.
Ellipsis (omission) - test based on the omission of the repeating phrases in a sentence.
e.g. The dog attacked the bulglar and savaged the bulglars ankles.
his