Of Corpses and Gold: Materials for the Study of the
Vet

aaaaala and the Ro langs

Michael Walter

One of the most prominent spiritual beings in the magical and alchemical prac-
tices of both Hindu and Buddhist yogis is the Vet

ala. And, thanks to the fame of the

Vet

alapa-cavimsati [hereafter: V.] and its later versions, the Vetala has occupied a

position of visibility out of all proportion to its importance as one among many
minor spiritual beings in Indian culture.

There is, as well, a figure of true importance to Tibetan culture, the Ro langs,

which seems to be both the same as, and yet different from, the Vet

ala, depending on

what data one uses from “religious” or “popular” environments.

The present effort seeks to supplement our knowledge of both these spiritual

beings, and what the relationships between them might be, as well as to detail some
of the alchemical procedures involving the Vet

ala.

How we understand its function also relates to the placement of the Vet

ala/Ro

langs, as a “lesser” spiritual being, in the cosmogony and cosmology of Buddhism
and Hinduism. The materials offered will allow us to make some observations about
what place the Vet

ala in particular has in the normative cosmological schemes of

both religions.

PART I. T

HE

NATURE

OF

THE

VET

A

LA

i. The picture of the Vet

ala in the V. is consistent with that in some materials below.

To summarize this famous set of stories: To fulfill a contract with a yogi, whereby
that yogi will enjoy success in his practice, King Vikram

aditya must bring him a

Vet

ala-inhabited corpse from a tree in a

samsana. By a ruse, the Vetala escapes from

the king and returns to the charnel ground. Thus unravels a series of tales told by
the Vet

ala which, throughout, functions as a sly, mostly self-serving riddler. Eventu-

ally, however, he serves well the occasionally silly King Vikram

aditya. In this way,

they both conform to prescribed roles, since the king is, ultimately, a hero, and this
“tamed” Vet

ala his contracted helper. Unfortunately, the V. is not strong in cultural

context, and we learn almost nothing of the origin and nature of the Vet

ala. Also, the

character of the Vet

ala here seems a true product of literary creation, not meant to

convey a description probably otherwise well-known to the readers and listeners of
the V.

We also don’t learn much from etymological considerations of vet

ala,

1

so we

may as well begin with some lexicographical data, which cite literary sources, texts
reflecting both tantric and “popular” views, and general knowledge. In these, the
Vet

ala is presented as an immortal among the kinds of corpses controlled by Bhutas;

a door-watcher; a kind of athlete; and, a leader among the attendants of

Siva.

2

The latter three definitions come from other dictionaries or specialized refer-

ences.

3

The first, which is unattributed, conveys something of the significance of

the term at hand, but cannot be considered accurate, especially in the face of data
from Tantric sources. Further, we really don’t get very far with the assertion that

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the Vet

ala is a kind of Bhuta, because the latter is a general category, subsuming

many spirits of nonhuman (amanu

rya) origin.

4

Kinds of spirits which are also men-

tioned as Bh

utas include Pisacas, although neither the Vetala/Vetali nor Pisaca/

Pi

saci(-ini) are among the categories of spirits specifically dealt with in the Bh

uta-

damara tantras of the Hindu and Buddhist traditions.

5

As a matter of fact, there are

many lists of sorts of Bh

utas which do not include Vetala. Also, while “Bhuta” as a

category is prominent in the Epics, and Pretas are found there, the Vet

ala is conspi-

cuously absent.

6

(One may say the same for the Pur

anas, save for the K

alika and

Brahmakaivarta.)

Significant differences emerge between Bh

utas and Vetalas, both in Tantric and

popular lore. Vet

alas are not always noxious (they may even be helpful); they com-

mune with yogis, and they have very specialized functions, centering on alchemy
and magic. Bh

uta, on the other hand, are almost always described to be dangerous,

enpecially as causes of illness, and do not enter into constructive relationship with
human beings. (The dangerous reputation of the Vet

ala, as we shall see, is not so

much a function of its nature as of its relationship with human beings.)

For all the above reasons, as well as what the data below shows, we should say

that Vet

ala are not really closely related at all to Bhuta. The situation has become

confused over time, however, partly through the creation of academic lists of minor
spiritual beings in both Hindu (especially

Saivite) and Buddhist sources. However,

the principal reason will become clear in the variety of sources we may consult: No
Indic tradition arose which consistently related minor spiritual beings with each
other or in a broader cosmology.

The close association of Vet

ala with Bhuta depends upon one special condition

only: References to

samsanas and the rites that take place there.

ii. In both Hindu and Buddhist contexts, Bh

uta are occasionally associated with

burning grounds, but Vet

ala are nearly always so. This is presented anecdotally, in

sourcen such as V., and is re

norted even in very recent times. This latter data rati-

fies the former; hanging corpses from trees in the

samsanas (which the Vetala in-

habits and is the mise en scene of the V.) is a charnel ground custom still reported
in the time of Crooke (1896) and Sarkar (1917). Crooke also noted that (at least in
the

samsanas) the Vetala are considered the “leaders” of the Bhutas, and associate

as well with such as Yak

ras and Rakrasas.

7

iii. Data on the nature, powers, etc., of the Vet

ala are found in Buddhist sutras, Bud-

dhist and Hindu tantras, dramas, and other literatures, especially when

samsanas or

the secret work of powerful yogis is presented. Sometimes they are dramatic de-
vices, sometimes instructions. There seem, however, to exist few descriptive works
devoted to Vet

ala. One of these is the *[

Arya] Saptavetalakanamadharani/[’Phags

pa] Ro langs bdun pa zhes bya ba’i gzungs, found twice in both the Peking and
sDe dge bKa’ ’gyur.

IVa

In this work the Buddha, in residence and teaching on

G

pdhrakuta Mountain, helps the Venerable Ananda, who remains separate from the

assembly of listeners. Its opening, partially paraphrased, is as follows:

A group of wandering mendicants with heretical (Mu stegs) views lets loose seven
great Vet

ala to do harm to the Bhagavan. But, although they make straight for him, they

have no chance to get to him; they can’t even see him. Since they couldn’t even see

OF

CORPSES

AND

GOLD

15

him, they went to where

Ananda had gone at that time at his leisure, and when they

reached him they touched him. As soon as they had,

Ananda experienced insufferable

pain. The intense burning caused him to feel that he was on the brink of dying. Under-
going all this,

Ananda thought, “The Bhagavan can’t intend for this to happen to me;

the Tath

agata doesn’t mean for me to suffer in this way.”

Sariputra and Maudgalyayana were sitting not far from Ananda. They heard the sort

of intense suffering [nye ba’i nyon mongs pa] he was experiencing, and went to sit
with him. They said, “Oh,

Ananda! What is that you are saying about the Tathagata not

intending the insufferable pain and extreme burning you are feeling?”

Ananda said,

“Oh, Venerable Ones! The feeling I have is as if my head is being sawed into pieces
when someone just touches

Ananda!” And they answered, “Have no fear, Ananda!

Just climb into your chair, and we’ll take you before the Tath

agata. The Bhagavan will

do something to protect you thoroughly from this suffering!”
... (They take him before the Bhagavan, who has come there at his pleasure, and who
asks him what suffering he has.

Ananda explains, and Buddha says:) “Oh, Ananda!

Those very powerful *Mahavet

ala

8

who have touched you are very difficult to tame,

and even if they just see you, they have seven injuries (to inflict upon you). If you ask
who these are, they are called ‘Holding a Garland’, ‘Holding a Jewel’, ‘Fierce’, ‘Ter-
rible’, ‘Peacock’s Heart’, ‘Life Consumed’, and ‘La Bcan’.

9

These seven Mahavet

ala

are great in strength, difficult to tame, difficult to propitiate; and, their powers of de-
ception and magic are great.

Ananda, each of these Vetala could, if he wished, cast

down even Mount Meru, King of Mountains, with the toe of his left foot; it would be
completely reduced, until it was about the size of a mustard seed. If each looked up-
wards, he could make the earth split open; if each looked in the cardinal directions,
there would be death in them; if each looked in the intermediate directions, they would
be burned by fire. It is they that have touched you!”

(The Tath

agata now tells Ananda that he will be cured by the Tathagata’s power,

by respectfully listening to the Dharma—i.e., learning the dh

arani which follow—

and by the Tath

agata’s blessing. Ananda now requests the means to deflect their

power, to bind them with mudr

as, and to bind them with threads [skud pa]. The text

now becomes a recitation of dh

arani for the Vetala, referred to as both Bhuta and

Mah

abhuta. The number of magic knots [mdud] which must be cast [’bor/ ’dor] to

bind each Vet

ala differ, as do the number of recitations of the dh

arani which must

accompany the binding. The combination of these actions results in the “stiffen-
ing” or “paralyzing” [rengs pa = stabdha or stambhana] of the Vet

ala, which is one

way threatening spirits are dealt with.

10

)

The Vet

ala presented here may have a different nature, and categorically differ-

ent powers than the Vet

ala discussed below, but we learn something from this text

about their supposed effects on human beings, and on the magical means that must
be employed to control them. (We may compare this with data in the Suvar

na[pra]-

bh

asasutra, where, in Chapter Eight, baths in waters empowered by medicines and

mantras—which are given—are prescribed to get rid of all Vet

ala, other nefarious

spiritual beings, and even bad dreams, etc.

11

Surely, these Vet

ala are not those de-

scribed above!)

Anecdotal sources supply us with a variety of other powers and abilities attributed

to Vet

alas; among these are that Bhuta and Vetala can lengthen themselves and

assume enormous size.

12

Of course, the best-known and most important power of

the Vet

ala—as in V.— is that it can adventitiously inhabit corpses. Dwelling in

samsanas, it specializes in “taking over” the newly dead. In doing so, it may cause

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the corpse to “become alive” in a way thought analogous to the Golem, or a zom-
bie,

13

and perhaps increase it in length. Because of this, measuring corpses has be-

come one way to look for the presence of a Vet

ala spirit.

14

(The size of Vet

ala spir-

its—and Pretas—in some sources distinguishes them from Bh

utas in general.

15

)

It is interesting that, neither in Indic textual sources (Tantras, Pur

anas, etc.), nor

in anecdotal sources, is much said specifically about what Vet

ala can do to a person

who accidentally stumbles upon them, or whom they attack, or what their proclivi-
ties are (other than that they are constantly hungry and have a taste for human flesh,
as is the case with several other supernatural denizens of the

samsana, as we shall

see). Indian lore even presents cases of good behavior by Vet

alas; we learn that the

behavior of a Vet

ala is largely dependent on the motives of the supplicant or yogi.

16

This is clear even in the Saptavet

alaka text above, where the Buddha is really at-

tacked by T

irthikas, who are only using the Vetalas as their tools.

Therefore, we can really say that the Vet

ala is an amoral being, whose function is

controlled by a powerful person who can create a contractural relationship with
him. Just as the gods themselves, when properly propitiated, Vet

alas wish to serve

humans, rather than to be merely floating in the void of sa

msara.

iv. The pivotal nexus is the relationship between the yogi/magician (who may be
called a

savaradhaka, ro sgrub byed

17

), his powers, and the Vet

ala. The ambiguity

and narrowness in the function of the Vet

ala are resolved in this relationship.

The broader context here is

savasadhana, a cover term for cultivation of spiritual

powers and meditational states through the use of a corpse. Yogis of all traditions
in India have utilized this method to achieve insight and power. The modern, nor-
mative Hindu description:

“Shava Sadhana comes in the practice of Tantra Sadhana. This is practiced by some Vira
Sadhakas in the cremation ground. Only the fearless can practice this sort of Sadhana.

“A human corpse is laid with its face to the ground. The Sadhaka sits on the back of

the body of the dead man. He draws a Yantra on the back and then worships.

“If the rite is successful, the head of the corpse turns around and asks the Sadhaka

the boon he wants; be it Salvation or some material benefit.

“The Devi speaks through the mouth of the dead man.”

18

Although this ritual doesn’t depend on the presence of Vet

ala spirits—in the

present article, for example, there are cited examples of Pretas and Pi

sacas occupy-

ing corpses—it is implicit that Vet

alas are attracted to yogis in the

samsana, and

that they have ga

nas which are analogous to those of the yogis.

19

They are attracted

initially, it seems, by the desire for flesh, especially human flesh (mah

amamsa/sha

chen), which the yogi (or practitioner) uses to create a contractural relationship with
the Vet

ala. By offering him flesh, he will grant the yogi or petitioner a labor or wish,

or enter the corpse so the yogi can uses him in bodily form.

20

It is for such reasons

that Vet

ala are sometimes praised to be cint

amani, etc. On the other hand, the yogi

may choose a corpse with the intent to call a Vet

ala to inhabit it. This dangerous

practice, Vet

alasadhana, is exampled in some of the texts studied in Part II. This

method depends upon the yogi “coercing” the Vet

ala. The successful conclusion of

this effort brings about Vet

alasiddhi/Ro langs kyi dngos grub, which is usually

achieved for alchemical ends (also see Part II).

21

OF

CORPSES

AND

GOLD

17

Vet

alasadhana, which is perhaps a special form of savasadhana, does not cover

all references to enlivening corpses. Yogis may do this to achieve their own ends—
frequently, power over life—with the Vet

ala not explicitly mentioned, and probably

not involved. Thus, the early reference in the M

alatimadhava (cf. fn.19) may or

may not be to Vet

alasadhana. In any event, we should speak of sets of rites and

yogic practices which may, depending on their emphasis, be either

savasadhana or

Vet

alasadhana.

All these processes are based on a manipulation of pr

ana, which is concentrated

and directed by recitation of mantra, service to spiritual beings, etc.

22

In addition

to some details in the texts cited in Part II, we give here the opening of the Bh

uta-

damaratantra

IVb

of the Buddhist tradition. It may serve as an overview for dealing

with such spiritual beings, including Vet

ala (which are not explicitly mentioned

among the groups of spirits in this text):

A very expanded ritual which will realize [i.e., is a s

adhana for] all Bhutas and Bhutinis.

The Lord of the Three Worlds, the Great Vajradhara, spoke these words:
“One ought to practice this s

adhana on riverbanks, in samsanas, under isolated

trees [i.e., trees whose shadows touch no others], in temples, in the house of Sri
Vajradhara, and in those places of the families (of beings represented here). This must
be done right away; if it isn’t, the Bh

uta and Bhutini with their kind [rigs dang rgnud

du bcas pa] will be entirely lost.”

Then, the Great Lha of Mahe

svara made prostration to the Bhagavan, with the top of

his head touching his feet, and he made the following request to the Bhagavan:

“Oh, Great Lord of Bhairavas! Please explain how to bring about the deaths of

poisonous and ill-behaved ones.” (The Bhagavan then gives him a dh

arani—om vajra

dvali hana hana sarva bh

utana hu

m

pha

t—to kill all Bhuta.)

Then, just as soon as he had recited this dh

arani, many flaming vajras appeared

from the pores of Vajradhara and the bodies of all Bh

utas and Bhutinis were desic-

cated;

23

Indra, Brahma, Vi

rnu, etc.—all the Devas—were killed. Following this, all

the Tath

agatas, astonished, spoke the following:

“It is good,

Sr

i Vajradhara, Great Lord of Bhairavas, that in a future time Bhuta and

Bhutin

i are annihilated!”

After that, he spoke the dh

arani which summons back [slar ’gugs] consciousness to

their corpses: o

m

vajra

ayure sara sarasmin. As soon as this was spoken, a great wind

emerged from Vajradhara’s nostrils, making their corpses [ro/

sava] come back to life.

As soon as that took place, (pr

ana, and then consciousness) entered the bodies of the

Bh

uta and Bhutini, who rose [langs/utti

rthate] and were greatly fearful. Because this

fear grew in them, they requested that the Bhagavan protect them; they requested that
the Tath

agana protect them.

“Do as the Bhagavan has ordered!”, he said.

The text continues, detailing the procedures outlined here, so that we have a

future means by which yogis may conquer and convert Bh

uta, Vetala, Preta, Pisaca,

etc., to Buddhism, and thus change them from chaotic to constructive elements in
their cosmology, make these beings their servants, and enjoy other benefits. For
our current topic, this text is a mythological and practical template for a Buddhist
Vet

alasadhana, showing the injection of the life-force (prana) of spiritual beings

into a corpse, its fear upon achieving consciousness again (the struggling of the
corpse; see Part II), and its conquest by the yogi (request for protection; boons later
granted). The Buddhist yogi has confidence in this process because of the superior-

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ity of his spiritual beings, and s

adhana, evnn to the point of being able to destroy

and re-create the greatest Hindu deities.

The encrypted reference to Ro langs, above, which is repeated throughout the

text, dates the use of this term in India to at least the seventh century,

24

and makes

it certain that the term and concept “Ro langs” derived from Indic traditions; the “Ro
langs” is thus not a “native” Tibetan spiritual being. This will be discussed further
in Parts III and IV.

To conclude this brief description of the Vet

ala, we note a particular propitiation

ritual mentioned in both Tantra and folklore materials which is an optional part of
Vet

alasadhana and savasadhana. This is holding the agnik

a

rya, a fire rite, usually

in the corpse’s mouth. It involves an offering of ghee, sesamum seed, etc., into the
fire, and follows the preparation of the corpse.

25

It certainly seems risky, as it often

backfires and an enraged spirit ends up killing the would-be s

adhaka.

26

A variation of

this rite is found in the Sub

ahuparippcchatantra; see Part II.

PART II. T

EXTS

ON

CORPSES

AND

GOLD

Here follows a selection of documents on Vet

alasadhana. Just glancing at the com-

mentaries which are noted below, as well as others, will show how skeletal these
narratives are. Note, also, that all involve alchemical transformations in some way.

The first document is the lengthiest description I have been able to find of a Vet

ala-

s

adhana. It is not a “coercive” rite; also, the text specifically says “Vetala, etc.”,

showing other spiritual beings might be so used. It is from a rNying ma tantra, the
sKu thams cad kyi snang bar ston pa dbang rdzogs pa rang byung chen po’i
rgyud.

IVc

This lengthy tantra, which contains much interesting material, deals with

funeral and

samsana rites. Following is the ninth chapter, entitled Ro langs gser

sgrub pa’i lung, “An instruction for transforming a Vet

ala into gold.”

I regret that I could not include more commentarial and interpretive material for

some of the obscure passages and references this work contains. My purpose here
is to isolate and detail a Vet

ala motif; to provide this material a complete context,

either in terms of the work as a whole or the particular culture it is practiced within,
would require time and space beyond the limits of this article, although this work
certainly deserves such effort.

(The author begs the indulgence of the reader for the large number of Sanskrit

terms in some of the following translations. The purpose is to show the thoroughly
Indian yogic nature of the texts. When studying the vast corpus of rNying ma ritual
literature, it is useful to distinguish materials which concord completely with, or
complement, known Indian practices. For example, the following rituals were mostly
practiced in Bengal and Orissa. Thus, these texts illustrate one source of rNying
ma ritual.)

Homage to the self-subsisting presence of the Bhagavan Padmamahendra!

27

In the presence of that Bhagavan Padmamahendra, Buddha Heruka taught this (for)
transforming a corpse into gold:

“E ma ho!
“Listen, Devas and N

agas of the ten directions! Any yogi who possesses the power

will begin the realizing of gold when he has gone far into a deserted area.

28

Further, in

that very deserted place he should create a square, one-cubit (wide) ma

ndala. Then,

OF

CORPSES

AND

GOLD

19

(the yogi should) sprinkle the area several times and measure off the boundaries of the
outer, inner, and secret (ma

ndalas).

“To measure off the outer boundary, (construct) four elevations for the four Mah

ara-

jas

29

at each of the four cardinal directions; a bali is offered at the base of each eleva-

tion. When the yogi has then written the mantras of each Mah

araja on four-finger long

pieces of paper, he will place them at their respective directions. This has been taught
for the demarcation of the outer (boundary).

“The yogi determines the inner boundary as follows: He does it with the mantras of

the Da

sakrodha.

30

“

The secret ma

ndala is measured off with weapons.

“A three-part bali is then offered; if one doesn’t have (materials for) this three-part

bali, then several extensive gser skyems are to be offered. Offerings of water are to be
made to such a degree as to be effective (against evil spirits).

“In such a way the boundaries are determined; after that, one ought to complete the

rite of the five grains.

31

Eight stupas then ought to be placed.

“This section is completed with a great confession.

32

“Having now completed the preliminary rites in that way, one should proceed into

the ma

ndala and cast strings on it; this is accomplished by the three great yogis.

33

The

secret vajr

acarya duly presents various marking-threads [thig skud] to that excellent

son, the Vajrar

aja [the yogi], who holds them up in open space and, stretching (each of

them) three times, (ought to wind them around/touch them to) the vajra. The yogi turns
his face from the west to the east, and casts one thread into the center (of the ma

ndala).

The other threads are also cast.

34

“After that, the ma

ndala is colored. One constructs the mandala for the peaceful

deities and gathers the ritual materials upon it. Arrows are put at the corners and knives
[kartri] at the doors, and white silk curtains are arranged there. The gtor ma of

Sri is

placed in the north, that of M

atpka in the south, that of Bhuta in the east, and flesh

[phud] and blood in the west.

“With this, the ma

ndala has been taught.

“Now, at the time one obtains the corpse, in order to tame [i.e., convert] a Vet

ala,

etc., strike the earth wherein M

ptyupati Yama resides with a mantra-strengthened weapon.

After that, the man who carried the corpse to the yogi should be maddened with the
water of madness.

35

“After this, one will practice s

adhana on that corpse. It will be stretched out in the

central, pure palace

36

of the ma

ndala; its hair, bound, will be fixed in a plaited spiral.

Both the yogi and the corpse are decked out in their own ornaments.

“First, wash the corpse with milk and scented water. In that state, place the corpse

on the ma

ndala.

“Three-fold is the means that will liberate (the consciousness—vijñ

ana—of the dead):

There will be liberating to benefit the deceased, liberating so that magical power will
be extracted, and liberating to compensate for damage done (by whatever transgres-
sions of vows the yogi has committed). In order that there may be liberations such as
these, these s

adhana-izings should be (considered to be) of the highest, middling, and

lowest sorts (respectively).
When the yogi liberates to benefit the deceased, he ought to make conferrals of power
[abhi

reka] and bestow blessings [adhirthana], conducting the six sorts of beings and

showing them the way.

37

He ought to offer bali continually to avert retribution for

faults of former lives, (and) accumulations of gifts and p

uja (for the deceased) should

not cease. One ought to offer varieties of collections of gifts representing the four
seasons.

“[When the yogi liberates to extract magical power, he will practice s

adhana for

three days, but for two of those he will perform rites for the wrathful deities.

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“[After that, the yogi will take up a magically powerful sword [kha

dga] to undo the

seal [mudr

a, ornament] of the secret teacher [guhyacarya] on the mandala. He will

deck himself out with cemetary ornaments [human bones] as well as a flayed human
skin (worn around his waist), which will be that very vajradeha itself. The yogi will
then strike the neck of the corpse with the sword for the conferral of power “of the
weapon in the hand”, and, when he has written the name of the support for meditation
[

alambana] for whatever (deity), he will concentrate intensively on it, reciting the

lineages (of his teachers) faultlessly.

“[After this, the head having been cut off and (the yogi) calling out, ‘Ha ha!’, he

(then) announces that by saying, “Slaying the undermining of the teaching is good!”
And this is the dh

arani (accompanying) the amputation of the head: om padmanta

krita kroda hulu hulu h

um khahi. This spell will be repeated one hundred times.

“Wnile reciting that dh

arani, meditate on Mahendra. The collection of weapons

[mantras] is completed with the clear presence (in meditation) of Mahendra, and the
one named Vajraki

ogara;

38

and, with the force of haughty, fierce deities, complete in

their assembly of weapons, (the yogi and his teacher) will circle the ma

ndala. With

this, the rituals of libation will be completed; use the dh

arani given above. Recite this

spell while counting continuously: o

m padmantakrita vajra kroda hayagriva hum hrih;

repeat it many times. Mahendra, then being present with his consort, (the yogi as)
Vajraki

ogara will then offer the head of the corpse to his acarya.

“Then, that same secret teacher will fulfill the spiritual wishes of the Sugata and the

Dakini. Following this, the dh

arani for removing the heart [citta] (is to be given); it

should be recited forcefully. The ac

arya instructs the yogi, saying, “Pull out the heart!”

Then, that vajra-butcher, reciting this dh

arani, pulls out the heart: sa ma ya kha hi /

tsitta hum ’dus kha dur m

a ra ya hum. With that dharani, the yogi should draw the

heart out toward him. If he is one possessed of the ascetic works [vrata] of a Ki

ogara,

39

then, eating the heart, the yogi will offer some to his acarya.

“Now, the yogi will recite the dh

arani that animates the dead one and obtains siddhi:

If the corpse rises during this recitation for obtaining siddhi, it is attained.

“During the rising of the corpse, that one who possesses to a high degree the es-

sence of Mahendra (i.e., the yogi) should strike at that spot with his dagger [k

ila] and

recite one-hundred eight times this dh

arani: om hrih tha sarba siddhi badzra hum.

With that recitation, success will be achieved. Through this spell, which ought to stimu-
late the deceased, (the vijñ

ana of the deceased) will be thrown into a womb prepared

for it: o

m dhram ka dza e sparana phat phat. There will be a conferral of power for the

deceased to become a son of the five families (of Tath

agatas). That conferral of power

has been taught with this spell: o

m svalam dutring hridaya stvam.

“The three bodies having become the vajrak

aya, they are within rings of five lights.

The yogi should consider these light-rays to be five blazing bodies.

40

Then, the secret

ac

arya will complete his conferral of power and blessing and will apportion the flesh

appropriately. And, in order to magnify the enjoyment of the sons [i.e., attending spir-
its] who reside in the ma

ndala, and the Lord himself, this is the dharani the yogi

should repeat while eating the meat: o

m ah hum hridaya siti hum phat. This is taught

to be the dh

arani for enjoyment of that flesh. Thus is taught liberating for the sake of

extracting the magical power (of the corpse).

“In liberating to benefit the deceased, on the very night of the last s

adhana the yogi

will take the ornaments off the corpse, remove that stretched-out corpse, and lay it
face-down on a ma

ndala for peaceful deities. When he has cast strings on the corpse’s

back in the correct manner, he should draw a ma

ndala for wrathful deities on it. This

will complete the collection of materials for p

uja.

“With the vajr

acarya leading the ritual, they will circumambulate the outer edges of

the corpse and the ma

ndala. Giving themselves to singing padmanta kri ta, they per-

OF

CORPSES

AND

GOLD

21

form the utpala dance vigorously. (When the vajr

acarya then) apportions the flesh

from above the central thread of the back of the corpse, the conferral of power is
complete. Consider that rays of light are streaming from this dh

arani, which is a spell

for the p

uja of the ru lu dance; here is that spell for the various offerings made then: om

ru lu ru lu h

um bhyo hum. Because there is a great streaming forth of light rays from

this spell, the obscurations (of the deceased) will be purified by those light-rays from
the body, speech, and mind (of all Buddhas). When the yogi has accomplished what
was to be visualized, he offers as p

uja five materials—these being the internal organs

of the carcass

41

—along with the eyes. This is done for the benefit of the deceased.

“In liberating to compensate for damage done (by the yogi’s transgressions): In

accordance with the above method of apportioning the flesh, at the end of two nights
of s

adhana, the yogi should create a mandala for wrathful deities. He should gather

whatever goods and materials (are needed for) p

uja and then circumambulate the out-

side of the ma

ndala. He should meditate on whoever is his irtadevata. He should then

gather whatever material he has for the bskang gso.

42

The yogi will then perform con-

fessions and bskang gso in their extensive forms. Methods for proceeding, and the
dh

arani for enjoyment, are just as those taught above. He should not cease the series of

offerings [gana] and bali until the Vighna (spirits of obstructions) are completely an-
nihilated. Acting as the executioner and flaying the corpse, the yogi will show the way
[cf. fn.36]. Preparing himself with the materials for compensatory offerings, the yogi
performs this rite and is blessed with having a sam

adhi connected with the seeds and

the materials of the gana and the p

uja. The yogi will then fulfill forever his vows to the

M

atpka. This is the customary practice for compensating for the damage done (by the

yogi’s transgressions).

“Such is the way one accomplishes thoroughly

savasadhana.

“Through this spell everything is realized: o

m sarva karuna padma vajrapani

vajrasattva samaya

ayuh amrita tira hum phat svaha. Repeating that spell, success

will be attained. Holding the heart between the thumb and the ring finger, the yogi
should remain in meditative equipoise through two periods of fatigue. However great
are the collections of offerings to the four times [i.e., seasons], in achieving siddhi the
yogi should consider them to have become gold.

“In such a way, when one possessed of such a sam

adhi practices this sadhana for

two years, the tongue of that corpse will truly turn into gold. When that tongue has
become gold, the yogi should receive it while in the “sam

adhi of the ring-finger” and,

after taking it, he should mix it with honey water, grind it finely, and recite over it the
secret spell. After this, it becomes (everything the yogi needs in terms of) food and
drink. After he has eaten it, he will become without rebirth and will attain bodhi. All
ordinary siddhis will be achieved. The yogi will be satisfied by just thinking of it (as
his food). Without (need for) clothes, he settles into being naked. Without wrinkles, he
becomes youthful, and remains that way for one hundred yenrs. After that, when he
changes his existence from this life, he will not return. Such powers as these will
appear.”

The second document is a set of passages from Chapter Six of the Krodhavajra-
kalpaguhyatantra;

IVd

some few citations have also been included from an anony-

mous

tika

IVd

which centers very much on kriya, i.e., details of ritual structure, but

which don’t inform us very much about the nature of the spirit involved here, which
is a Preta. This tantra centers on Yam

antaka rites, in which the yogi, by exercising

the magical power and spell [mthu] of Yam

antaka, gains control over certain spiri-

tual beings to acquire powers. The sixth chapter, “The rite of the Vet

ali”,

43

sketches

how this control is brought about, as well as other magical powers. The seventh
chapter, in part, details the powers the yogi will obtain. The selection below is only

22

THE

TIBET

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part of the complete ritual centering on vet

alamudra, but contains the relevent mate-

rinl on the use of the corpse and creation of a “risen corpse”.

[The Vet

ala is controlled by use of the seventeen-syllable dh

arani, om ah kro dhi ka ya

m

an ta ka ha na ma tha bha

ñ

ja h

um phat, taught by Yamantaka, and the vetalamudra,

described in the text, below. This spell renders all Asuras confounded.]

Once possessed of these things, the yogi constructs the ma

ndala which leads to ha

ha.

44

As has been explained for the generality of Pretas,

45

this ma

ndala should also be

a square. The learned one ought to make the regions around the ma

ndala especially

pure by building up fires. The ma

ndala is to be drawn in accordance with the rite,

neither more nor less than eightncubits square.

The yogi will assign bloody Pretas of desolate caves at each of the doors of the ma

ndala

when they appear clearly (in meditation). In the middle, he will place in a clear way (in
a state of meditative clarity) the lower half of a human body, a human corpse without a
head. Finally, being a ma

ndala of the general sort for Pretas, the yogi will arrange a

garland of Pretas around its edge.

[Following numerous other works to complete the ma

ndala—described in detail in

the commentary—the yogi, repeating the dh

arani given above, will climb onto the

headless corpse. He will then offer p

uja to the assembled Preta and place lamps around

the ma

ndala ... After applying the vetalimudra to the heart of the corpse {while repeat-

ing the vet

aladharani above for 1008 nights), the yogi circumambulates it and—as

Yam

antaka—washes the corpse, ornaments it, and offers p

uja. The yogi, called a Vidya-

dhara and a powerful V

ira, again acting as Yamantaka, takes up a sword [kha

dga] and

steps on the heart of the corpse “with the left foot of the V

i

ra”, and then repeats the

seventeen-syllable dh

arani.

46

]

Being compelled by Yam

antaka’s fearful spell, the Preta (in the corpse) will begin to

shake [kampate]; the yogi, having become (one who shouts) ha ha, will cause the
Preta to panic. The yogi should then also make that sound, ha ha, just like that. Then,
the corpse will rise, because of Yam

antaka [lit., “the Lord”], after which (the yogi) should

offer to Yam

antaka gifts which include the flesh and blood (of the corpse) cut with that

blazing, sharp weapon [i.e., the kha

dga]. Recognizing (through that offering) the warmth

of that Vidy

adhara’s citta, Yamantaka accepts the offering, and when the ma

ndala (of

spirits also utters) ha ha, the Preta is made fearful. Then, when the Preta has seen the
form (of Yam

antaka), which is suitably fear-inspiring, there will be demonstrated to

the Preta the vet

alimudra of Vira Yamantaka.

Then, because Yam

antaka resides in that body of the Preta, (the yogi) sees that vet

ali-

mudr

a itself. Recognizing the warm citta of that yogi, (which shows) the best of inten-

tions (by the yogi), it is certain that Yam

antaka will make (siddhi) to be given to (the

yogi).

When the King of Wrath [Krodhar

aja, i.e., Yamantaka] has again withdrawn from

the body, that corpse will collapse to the ground. Its body will then certainly turn into
gold. The yogi will then distribute pieces of this corpse, as he wishes, to his friends and
other sentient beings.

This being the explanation of the (process of) realization of Mah

atmavira [Yamantaka]

... when a s

adhaka who has citta which is other than that (described here) has realized

that Krodhar

aja, then, in just the time it takes for the corpse to rise, he and his friends

will all be killed. If he (also) doesn’t know the vet

alimudra then, although (the sadhaka)

may become a krodha in some way through that mudr

a, the siddha of that Krodharaja

will be killed.

The third and fourth documents are from two similar, but by no means identical,
texts. Both seem to be known, in their short titles, as rDo rje bkod pa, but they differ

OF

CORPSES

AND

GOLD

23

in size and the format of their contents. The following translation is from the De
bzhin gshegs pa thams cad kyi thugs gsang ba’i ye shes don gyi snying po rdo rje
bkod pa’i rgyud rnal ’byor grub pa’i lung kun ’dus rig pa’i mdo theg pa chen po
mngon par rtogs pa chos kyi rnam grangs rnam par bkod pa mdo,

IVe

which is over

600 pages long in the 1982 rNying ma rgyud ’bum edition, and was translated from
Burushaski. The second version, given only in Tibetan in PART V below, is from
the De bzhin gshegs pa thams cad kyi thugs gsang ba’i ye shes don

ngyi snying po

khro bo rdo rje’i rigs kun ’dus rig pa’i mdo rnal ’byor grub pa’i rgyud ces bya ba
theg pa chen po’i mdo. It is 275 pages long in the 1973 rNying ma rgyud ’bum
edition, and has no colophon.

IVe

The narratives of these two texts concerning

savasadhana are very similar, so

only the first has been translated, but a few variant readings or added data are in-
cluded, in round brackets, from the second.

The following analysis of raising the dead (is for) obtaining the great dead body [bam
chen] of ignorance [moha], a corpse, from the island of the dead [i.e., a

samsana], (to

realize) an end to the conceptions of eternal existence or complete annihilation (after
neath, which exist among) the ill ones in the samsara of the three realms.

47

In order for

(the dead) to achieve birth in an unobstructed way, supply the corpse with a dh

arani

which is a wish-fulfilling gem [cint

amani] (for this purpose), and (all such obstruc-

tions) will be suppressed.

{In a maha

samsana, having already sought out materials for decking out the corpse,}

the yogi should then become a companion of that corpse, repeating ceaselessly that
dh

arani. When the corpse’s {complexion and} luster have returned, {these are signs

that he is succeeding, and} the yogi should show great industry (in applying that dh

arani)

without interruption.

Just when that corpse has begun to shake [kampate], it should then be rubbed with

one’s juice of transformation {the juice of transformation into gold}.

48

Now the yogi

must bind the limbs of the corpse while forceful repetitions of the spell continue unin-
terruptedly. Whenever that corpse begins to rise, it will manifest miraculous displays
in a dreadful way. (Nevertheless,) the yogi [puru

ra] who possesses the correct prac-

tices [vrata] will then cut out the corpse’s tongue. When he casts (that spell) on the
corpse, it will become gold. Likewise, if one transforms that corpse on the basis of any
kind of wish made, that wish will come true. And, inasmuch as the tongue, the sword
[kha

dga] which cut it out, and the cut-off head of the corpse are “realized” materials

which can fulfill the yogi’s wishes,

49

when a yogi seizes the corpse’s skull as his armor

and holds up the sword which has cut off the tongue, even an army

50

of Asuras will be

repulsed.

As for the “quick-foot” siddhi:

51

Exceeding a measurement in miles, a skillful yogi [puru

ra] can, while looking in all

directions, simultaneously launch an arrow, circle the world, and catch that arrow be-
fore it falls to the ground, all in an instant. The puru

ra whose hand-reach has not

diminished

52

can arrive at a place immediately; he achieves (whatever he wishes) very

quickly—as in an instant.

All wishes make themselves visible on the corpse. {This has been explained by the

Jinas of the three times. This is the sam

adhi of the Vetalasadhana. This is the end of the

second narrative.} While practicing

savasadhana on a corpse, if the corpse is pre-

pared, but the qualities of the corpse (described above) haven’t yet appeared, one
practices s

adhana in whatever way one usually does (until the yogi has) a complete

discrimination (of the illusory nature of phenomena) on the corpse for the purpose of
(those qualities) appearing there.

24

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By practicing according to the certain knowing that there is no intrinsic nature of the

corpse in the corpse, then when one practices (according to) an equanimity of view just
like that, (one is following the dictum), “View and practice are the same”. This has
been explained by the Sacred One (to be the correct approach to this practice).

This is the practice of the excellent am

p

ta which raises the dead.

The fifth and last document is a selection from the sixth chapter of the Sub

ahupari-

p

pcchatantra, with supplemental material in round brackets and in the footnotes,

from two commentaries.

IVf

This material has been included both for its own value and because a sketch off

it, published in 1857 by Vasilii Vasil’ev in his Buddhizm, ego dogmati, istoriia i
literatura, probably represents the first description of vet

alasadhana in Western

scholarship. In addition to the translation of the passage, the French translation of
Vasil’ev’s precis follows the Tibetan text in PART V (the Russian edition is not
available to me).

53

A commentary (PIN

IVf

, 50r) divides acquiring vet

alasiddhi into eight parts, to

wit: The characteristics of the vet

alasadhaka; the characteristics [of the dharani

and the rite] which will raise the Vet

ala; the location and placing for the Vetala to

be realized; facing the ma

ndalas which will realize vetalasadhana; how one ought

to wash the corpse; the rite of the materials for the five sorts of p

uja; the rite for

how one should recite the dh

aranis; and, that the yogi ought to completely pacify

the Vighnas which appear when the Vet

ala is rising.

54

The commentary then goes

on to discuss some of these points, beginning with the characteristics of the s

adhaka,

which form the conclusion of the narrative below.

If a yogi sees a human corpse which has no scars on it, {a friend of the yogi} ought to
protect it throughout the day by holding a sword and club in his hands.

55

Then, just as

soon as possible [i.e., that night], the Vet

ala should be realized in an empty mausoleum

in a

samsana; under a solitary tree [see above]; at a stream, a lake, or an ocean; or, on

a mountain.

Having examined such a place and found it totally appropriate, the yogi should

anoint it {a hundred times} with soil with cow dung, etc. In that pure place, the yogi
should draw a samaya

56

using various paints, either black, white, or red. Having con-

sidered from among the ma

ndalas already discussed, whichever one the yogi desires is

perfectly acceptable. Invoking (by dh

arani) with great faith the most excellent of the

Mothers of his (Tathagata) family

57

and concentrating carefully on it, he should write it

(on that ma

ndala).

A fearless servant will then accept (the corpse from the bearer) and will carry it in,

placing it on ku

sa grass. He will shave its scalp, as well as the finer hair on the body,

and then immediately rub (mustard) oil on it. The yogi will then fill four ... pots (kala

sa)

with pure water [i.e., water over which mantras have been recited], mix it with mate-
rials for ablutions, and then wash the body with it.
After this, the yogi will dress the corpse in a white garment of fine material. Then,
placing the corpse on a grass seat, strewn with whole flowers and in the middle of the
ma

ndala, he will place its head to the east or north. It should then be rubbed

withnaromatic materials and incensed, with a garland of flowers put on it, and sprayed
with pieces of flowers.

The yogi should then make piles from flesh {human, elephant, or buffalo}, fish, the

liquid from melted butter, and sesame seeds—whatever is available—mix them to-
gether, and put them on the corpse’s cheeks, etc. These should be offered above and
below the corpse to the Bh

utas, Nagas, Pisacas,

58

Yak

ras, and ’dre. With the good friend

OF

CORPSES

AND

GOLD

25

nf the yogi to protect him,

59

he ought to repeat the secret spell (which enlivens the

corpse) with his thought in one-pointed concentration.

When the corpse begins to rise, various Vighnas nho have frightful appearances will

manifest themselves. When the yogi has empowered ground, or whole, white mustard
seeds with the dh

arani of gTsug tor rgyal mo, these Vighnas, who have come from

everywhere because of that bali, will take flight from the power of that secret spell.

60

To pacify those (other) fierce beings (who manifest themselves), the yogi will make a
union with Am

ptakundalin, who possesses works which are terrible. When those Vighna

are (thus) subdued, the Vet

ala will rise quickly through the power of the secret dh

arani.

Whatever {siddhi} the yogi sees from this detailed dh

arani-rite is achieved now, in

reality and without limitation.

If, however, after that corpse has arisen, the yogi doesn’t know the dh

arani-rite for

that corpse, then (he may use) a dh

arani-rite according to another teacher. Going to

treasures; into caves;

61

{riding on a} sword; añja (?); having a servant; (having) the

juice which transforms things into gold, and ras

ayanas; and, flying through the sky:

These siddhis will be given the yogi. (However,) a yogi with a feeble mind, being
without the power of this dh

arani, is (also) without the power of its protection, and the

mind also does not have power because it is without the force of (the experience of)
ascetic practices [tapas] (that accompany these teachings). Searching for vet

alasiddhi,

that yogi will be killed by those who wander about at night.

PART III. T

HE

RO

LANGS

[Some observations in this section follow on, or react to, views and materials in
articles by Turrell Wylie and Per-Arne Berglie on the Ro langs.

62

In addition, I have

also used material here collected recently by Keith Richmond (see fn.67). These
sources are here cited as “Wylie”, “Berglie”, and “Richmond”.]

A great hindrance to studying the relationships between the Vet

ala and the Ro

langs is the lack of even a relative chronology for them. We don’t know, e.g., how
old belief in the Ro langs is in Tibet, and, thus, whether it might predate the intro-
duction of the Vet

ala concept. Likewise, we don’t know how long vet

alasadhana

has been practiced in Tibet, although its knowledge is attributed to numerous fig-
ures in the sNga dar period, i.e., before the mid-tenth century,

63

and there is at least

one text mentioning the Ro langs in the materials from Dunhuang, although it does
not seem exceedingly old.

Notices about vet

alasadhana practice in the sNga dar are probably truthful, be-

cause in the early Phyi dar, Lha Lama Ye shes ’od (who died around 1030), the king
of Pu hrangs in Western Tibet and descendent of the last ruler of the Tibetan Impe-
rium, composed an official statement in which he expressed that he was very dis-
turbed that such practices were current among Tibetans in his day.

64

The best-known story of vet

alasadhana in Tibetan sources—found in many of

the standard histories—has an Indian monk using the gold thus obtained to found
Odantapuri Monastery. This story may well have been carried into Tibet in the
sNga dar, by Indians or Tibetans telling miraculous stories of India. In that story,
the Vet

ala would have also become very dangerous if the yogi and his helper had

failed in the rite: He would have eaten them.

65

The principal characteristic of the Ro langs is its unremittingly evil nature. When

I mentioned, at the beginning of this article, that the Ro langs is important in Tibetan
culture, it was in reference to the awe, hatred, and terror that the Ro langs inspires.
There is no other spiritual being that arouses such strong feelings in Tibetans. It has

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no positive function at all; it is not an ambiguous figure in their lives, and offers no
benefits under any circumstances. It cannot be “controlled” or “tamed” by an ordi-
nary person, and the only means of prenventing it from entering a corpse is by
binding the latter (see fn.1n). If it appears, it must be killed by someone, a sngags
pa, a lha pa, or even a brave layman.

66

Wylie, Berglie, and others

67

consistently

support these data from their oral materials.

Written sources are also valuable, of course, because, when they are included, e.g.,

in a rnam thar, we may see the Ro langs interpreted in a more “normative” Tibetan
Buddhist manner: How a lama understands such a phenomenon. As a common motif
in Tibetan materials, we see many such vignettes in biographies avanlable to us.

Following is one example, a passage from the autobiography of Padma lhun grub,

a.k.a. O rgyan bstan ’dzin, an 18th century lama from northern Nepal.

IVg

He recounts

the following, which happened when he was in the company of his Dharma-friend,
Chos bstan ’dzin, on pilgrimage. The story most probably dates from the 1750s:

“Then, about three or four days after we arrived up at Manang, a lama told us, ‘Chos
bstan ’dzin and U rgyan bstan ’dzin, go together to a cemetary and bring down a skull
for use in inner p

uja.’

“So, we entered Cool Grove, the great cemetary of Manang, that very night, and,

coming across some headrests in a mausolnum [ro khang], we slept there.

“At a little past the middle of the night, we left that mausoleum and, there being

another empty mausoleum with no skulls in it, (we left that also). Then, after we had
left each of these, Chos bstan ’dzin found some pieces of one woman’s skull, and I
came across another empty mausoleum. Then, as my Dharma-friend is removing a
skull and I’ve gone to search behind the mausoleum he’s in, while I’m searching there
is suddenly, here and there, a shout Hang! I think to myself, “What kind of animal is
that?”, as I listen to it. The sound was coming from inside a mausoleum. I thought this
must be some magical action, so I sat, cross-legged, holding fast onto the top of a
roofless mausoleum, and sang this short song from within a state of sam

adhi:

“‘What is happening now, and the Lha and the ’Dre, are the three magical cre-

ations.

68

When looking upon appearance and emptiness without the obstructions of

conceptual thoughts, I will not be deceived. Oh, assembly of Lha and ’dre! Let the
magic of Ro langs, lha, ’dre, or whatever, appear!’“

69

“But, before my view could be restrained [through this sam

adhi], the mausolea are

lit in flames

70

and shake. The very rocks are shouting, ‘Rog! Rog!’ My body began to

shake, too! And, although I cast perhaps three phat while in the sam

adhi of Khros ma

Nag mo (a fierce form of T

ara, Kruddhatara), that force was not pacified.

“In an instant, as I was searching out whatever there was of somebody’s two arms in

the darkness, among the arms and legs in the mausoleum, I was seized by the long and
thick hand of a dead person. He draws himself up in one effort and appears before me
in just two instants ... As he appeared before me, he cried out with that effort. Just as
soon as the Ro langs rose up, I seized his two arms and dragged him outside.

“It was the corpse of an old man, dead about one month, with somewhat white hair.

Its body and face, which had not deteriorated, were bronzy in color. I was able to
release that Ro langs; then Chos bstan ’dzin came, calling out, ‘Where are you?’

“After that ... we extracted the thigh bone and took it back with us.
“I offered this story to the lama. He said that, indeed, it was a real Ro langs, a lord of

the

samsana and a magical creation of the Lha and ’Dre. He told people that I had

released a Ro langs!”

Its intrinsic interest aside, this story illustrates clearly the frightening supernatu-

ral phenomena associated with Ro langs, but also establishes that overcoming a Ro

OF

CORPSES

AND

GOLD

27

langs is a brave—but not superhuman—undertaking. It would also seem that their
lama didn’t associate the Ro langs with a Vet

ala, but, at the same time, it is interest-

ing that Padma lhun grub doesn’t tell us how he “released” the Ro langs, which
method could have been a sort of vet

alasadhana.

The remaining data about Ro langs from anecdotal sources—Wylie, Berglie,

and Richmond—are sketchy. Berglie (p.41) says that the greatest power of a Ro
langs is to make someone ill or mad by touching him or her on the head. This effect
is seen to be contagious; a Ro langs may thus “infect” an entire region, or empty it
in some way through fear or power.

Finally, we note these two observations from Wylie: He mentions (p.76) that a

sign of the entrance of a Ro langs is that the corpse begins to grow. Also, one of his
narrators (p.76) notes that, “For some demonical reason, [Ro langs] find it difficult
to rise up when there is too much light.”

The most outstanding physical ability Tibetans attribute to Ro langs in general

is that they are stiff, move awkwardly, and cannot bend. Thus, doorways in many
parts of Tibet are traditionally low, so that Ro langs cannot enter houses (e.g., data
in fn.67).

I conclude this brief section with a widespread categorization of Ro langs. As

noted by informants in all three of our sources here, and elsewhere, Tibetans be-
lieve that there are five kinds of Ro langs: skin, blood, flesh, bone, and mole (lpags
langs, khrag langs, sha langs, rus langs, rme langs). These refer to where the Ro
langs is most vulnerable to attack, through the skin, etc., up to the most difficult,
finding the mole on the body which must be pierced.

PART IV. S

OME

CONCLUSIONS

Are we now in a position to say that this or that characteristic of a Ro langs is
similar to, and probably stems from, the Vet

ala, while others are of an indepen-

dent—presumably “native” Tibetan—origin? Or, are these beings independent in
origin and development? Chronological data being absent, or insufficient, we must
look to details of the character, actions, and powers of these beings to arrive at an
informed choice of alternatives.

First of all, in dealing with the term Ro langs, we have seen that the term and,

presumably, original model for a “risen corpse” is explained from Indic yogic
traditions which go back (probably) at least to the early seventh century there. The
term and some concepts entered Tibet in sNga dar times. It was also during this
period that the term Ro langs must have been applied by Tibetans as a specific
equivalent for the Vet

ala as used in

savasadhana. The concept of the Ro langs as a

risen corpse under the control of a spiritual being is snecifically exampled, as I
have shown, already in the Bh

utadamaratantra, although this text was appar-

ently not rendered into Tibetan until some time later.

71

(Thus, the appearance of a

motif may not always be dependent on the translation of documents about it.) It is
interesting that no Tibetan scholiast has—to my knowledge—felt the need to note
either contrasts or similarities between the Ro langs and the Vet

ala. None of the

informants in the anecdotal data cited by the above authors, and others, seem aware
of the two categories, either. Such a distinction appears to exist in the Tibetan
attribution of lha ’dre (above) or of gdon as causing Ro langs (Wylie, 72; Thupten
Sangay, op.cit., fn.14, p.12), but it is clear, upon examination, that such an explana-

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tion falls far short of convincing us that the ‘Ro langs caused by gDon’ represents
a “native” Tibetan concept.

72

Inconsistency also exists in both the Indic and Tibetan traditions as to which

sort of spirit may create a Vet

ala or a Ro langs, or which may be used in

savasadhana.

As we have seen in Parts I and II, Preta or Pi

saca occasionally also occupy corpses

or are invoked; Wylie (73) notes that bgegs may occupy corpses, along with gdon,
and ’dre are cited as well by Berglie (p.41). These variations might seem to con-
fuse the issues of origin and influence, but in fact are irrelevant. In many cultures,
the functions and powers of “minor spiritual beings” overlap or are only vaguely
defined; such spirits are, by definition, “out there”, anywhere in the darkness or
deserted places where human beings aren’t, or shouldn’t be. Thus, we aren’t ex-
pected to know much about them, and we depend on our “greater spiritual beings”
to protect us from them. (The difficulty in categorizing Bh

uta discussed above is

directly related to its vague descriptions.n When we remain focused on comparing
the Vet

ala and the Ro langs we can see a definite and consistent set of characteris-

tics which match the two.

Nothing excludes that Tibetans may have attached some other, truly “native”

significance to Ro langs. However, its origin in Buddhist Tantric culture would help
explain the tremendous popularity of such lore in Tibet, and its absence elsewhere
in Asia (except in Mongolia, which also argues for a Buddhist origin, since the
dependence on Tibetan lore is clear). Because we lack any evidence that it is a “na-
tive” spiritual being (contra Wylie, 72), this is an argumentum ex silencio. The Ro
langs is not found as part of “pre-” or “non-” Buddhist Tibetan religiosity, folk
beliefs, or rituals, as presented in either the earliest materials or in later compila-
tions which document (as least some of) them, such as the Lha ’dre bka’ thang
(which does make several explicit references to the contents of the Saptavet

alaka-

n

amadharani, and seems to derive its knowledge of the Ro langs exclusively from

the Vet

ala as presented there), the Rin chen gtnr mdzod, or the texts studied by René

de Nebesky-Wojkowitz in The Oracles and Demons of Tibet.

Are the characteristics of the Ro langs and the Vet

ala sufficiently different as to

support a hypothesis of separate origin and nature? No. For example, as cited
above, according to Berglie and Wylie (p.75), the most dangerous thing a Ro langs
can do is make people mad or ill by touching them on the head. This power of a
Ro langs originates in the Saptavet

alakanamadharani, as we have seen, with Ananda

as a model, and probably is the origin of the “water of madness” motif in the first
document studied in PART II.

Different interpretations of the actions of Ro langs naturally arose over the centu-

ries. This caused Wylie to put forward the “epidemic” type (p.76), which is really
only a variant on the notion of the Ro langs illness here, with the Ro langs touch-
ing many heads, rather than just one or two, and overcoming many people. “Empty-
ing a country” or “laying waste to a land”, or some similar effect, is also sometimes
ascribed to Ro langs.

73

This power can also be seen to derive from the Odantapuri

episode mentioned in PART III, and the hyperbolized power described in the
Saptavet

alakanamadharani.

More specialized characteristics also show an Indian derivation. Wylie’s notice

that corpses increase in size with the entrance of a Ro langs corresponds to the length-
ening of a corpse noted in materials in PART I. (This will not obviate, for some, the

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29

naturalistic explanation on p.78 of Wylie on the condition known a anasarca; com-
ments here apply to the probable cultural origin of the motif.) Likewise, their aver-
sion to light, and the reason for it—shared by many spiritual beings “of the night”
in India, Tibet, and around the world—is already detailednin the Bh

utadamaratantra

and the S

nptavetalakanamadharani.

74

Even the notice by O rgyan bstan ’dzin that

thenRo langs which threatened him had a face and body free of scars, etc., accords
with the requirements at the opening of the Sub

ahuparippcchatantra passage quoted

above, and probably speaks to the predilection of the Vet

ala spirit to find an un-

damaged host by which to more closely recapitulate a living human being.

75

The problems that lengthened, Ro langs-inhanited corpses have bending over

and entering doorways may, of course, be explained as due to rigor mortis. How-
ever, that condition does not last long, and, there being no explanation forthcoming
from the Tibetans (to my knowledge), I would like to present a complementary
rationale which may have brought about this belief. Charles Ramble and Claes Corlin

76

inform us that the backs of corpses are often—in some areas, usually—broken to
prevent Ro langs from entering. This could be seen as preventing spirits from re-
entering the body by the same venue that the rnam shes/vijñ

ana exited it: The

subtle channel leading to and through the brahmarandhra. The awkward gait of
the Ro langs would be a consequence of such an ‘unnatural’ revivification.

Materials cited here show that nearly the entirety of Tibetan belief about Ro

langs has been generated from assorted Indic descriptions of the Vet

ala and its use

in vet

alasadhana. Aside from beliefs about the skin Ro langs, etc.—which may be

local developments, of recent date—Tibetan notions of “risen corpses” are best
explained as teachings and lore spread by Tibetan yogis and others. Long ago they
had heard or read the above texts, or learned about Vet

alas, and/or practiced vet

ala-

s

adhana, and Ro langs was a literal rendering for what a Vetala is—a risen corpse.

And, since the Indic tradition knows of both “rogue” and “tamed” Vet

ala, in both

“Tantric” and “popular” contexts, it is not necessary to postulate “tantric” and
“demonic” Ro langs, as Wylie (71f) had. Both Vet

ala and Ro langs are dangerous,

unless powerful yogis or other brave souls can deal with them. What Wylie referred
to as a “demonic” Ro langs is the Tibetan version of an “untamed” Vet

ala loose in

a village or

samsana.

What is left to consider is the obvious point: Why is the Ro langs such an impor-

tant figure in Tibet (and, through Tibet, Mongolia)? I leave this to those who have
studied Tibetan attitudes toward death and corpses, for I believe a particular fear
of the dead—a suspicion that they really aren’t—combined at an early period in
Tibet with this interesting Vet

ala lore coming from India to provide another ratio-

nalization for a mortal fear of corpses and the dead. (On the other hand, it also may
have simply been the novel and macabre nature of the stories which gripped the
Tibetans and made the tradition so popular.)

Finally, we come to the cosmological and cosmogonic implications of this com-

plex. First, and most importantly, it shows that both Hindus and Buddhists be-
lieved that there were places in their universe which escaped the benevolent con-
trol of their spiritual beings. These areas—dark places, deserted areas, and those
where the dead dwelled—represented a chaos dwelling within their cosmos. Gods
were apparently helpless against them; only specially-trained religious heroes could
venture there to practice their craft, and apparently even their efforts were useless

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if the creature successfully entered the world of the living. Darkness, of course,
represents chaos in the Indo-Iranian world and elsewhere, and it may be an excuse
for the vague positions Vet

ala and Bhuta have in Hindu and Buddhist cosmologies:

Where there is darkness, nothing can be perceived, recognized, known, and thus
classified. Nothing is said of how these beings were created; little is said about how
the Devas and great Buddhas and Bodhisattvas relate to them, or may control them,
outside of the Saptavet

alakanamadharani. And, in the “organic” cosmology of

Buddhism, which finds places for all orders of sentient beings, even Bh

uta and

Preta,

77

no place has been assigned for the Vet

ala.

It is an irony also met with in the cosmologies, e.g., of the Mediterranean Gnos-

tic groups, that higher and more powerful spiritual beings are helpless to protect us
from the evil spirits which dwell, enmeshed, in a world beyond their power, the
world of creation, where humanity also dwells. This world is sometimes also eternal,
and was created at the same time as, but is opposed to, the cosmos. Like their evil
spirits, the Vet

ala comes as close as anything to providing an Indian and Tibetan

answer to, “Why bad things happen to good people”. It is totally irrational, and by its
neediness exists only to bring human beings misery.

As the subject of alchemical practice, the Vet

ala is that agent of chaos as raw,

untamed nature, inimical to life and spirit, which the yogi must overcome and then
bring into the cosmos in a positive state as a sign that he has mastered all the forces
of evil he may encounter. Indeed, an enlivened corpse possessed by an evil spirit
seems the perfect figure of an intrusion of a blindly destructive element into our
cosmos.

PART V. T

EXTS

FOR

PARTS

I

,

II

,

&

III

N.B.: References to Canons are to The Tibetan Tripitaka: Peking edition, Tokyo,
1955, and The sDe dge mTshal pa bKa’ ’gyur (and the accompanying bsTan ’gyur
series, Delhi, 1976-1978. “Best-reading” texts given below represent my compari-
son of the cited editions, with occasional, preferred readings not found in either
edition.

IVa A best-reading selection based on one of the sDe dge (Vol.91, pp.104-106)
and both Peking (Vol.7 & 11, pp.296f and 279, respectively) canon editions.

phyi bzhin ’brang ba’i dge sbyong tshe dang ldan pa kun dga’ bo dang yang thabs cig
go /

de’i tshe na mu stegs can kun tu rgyu ba rnams kyis bcom ldan ’das la gnod par bya

ba’i phyir / ro langs chen po bdun btang bar gyur to / de dag bcom ldan ’das kyi thad du
song ba las de dag gis glags ma rnyed / dmigs pa ma rnyed do / de dag gis glags ma
rnyed / dmigs pa ma rnyed nas de dag tshe dang ldan pa kun dga’ bo ga la ba der song
ste phyin nas / tshe dang ldan pa kun dga’ bo’i lus la reg go / reg ma thag tu kun dga’
bo de sdug bsngal mi bzad pa / drag pa tsha ba shi la thug pa’i tshe re ba rnams dang
ldan par gyur to / de nas tshe dang ldan pa kun dga’ bo ’di snyam du sems te / bdag ni
sdug bsngal mi bzad pa / drag pa tsha ba / shi la thug pa’i tshor ba rnams dang ldan na
bcom ldan ’das des ma dgongs so / bdag ’di ltar nyam nga bar gyur na de bzhin gshegs
pa ma dgongs so snyam mo /

de’i tshe na tshe dang ldan pa sha ri’i bu dang / tshe dang ldan pa maud gal gyi bu

chen po dang / tshe dang ldan pa kun dga’ bo dang thag mi ring ba zhig na ’dug par
gyur to / tshe dang ldan pa kun dga’ bo’i nye ba’i nyon mongs pa de lta bu de tshe dang

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31

ldan pa sha ri’i bu dang / tshe dang ldan pa maud gal gyi bu chen pos thos so / de nas
de gnyis tshe dang ldan pa kun dga’ bo ga la bder song ste phyin nas ’di skad ces smras
so / tshe dang ldan pa kun dga’ bo sdug bsngal mi bzad pa / drag pa tsha ba’i tshor ba
myong nas bdag la de bzhin gshegs pas ma dgongs so zhes ci de skad ces smra’am / de
skad ces smras pa dang / tshe dang ldan pa dag bdag gi lus la tshor ba dang ldan pa ni
dper na sog les mgo bo gshags pa ltar kun dga’ bo la reg pa yang de dang ’dra’o / kun
dga’ bo ma ’jigs shig / bdag cag gis khyod khri’i steng du bzhag ste / de bzhin gshegs
pa’i drung du bskur ro / bcom ldan ’das de khyod la yongs su skyob par mdzad par
’gyur ro /

de nas tshe dang ldan pa sha ri’i bu dang / tshe dang ldan pa maud gal gyi bu chen

pos tshe dang ldan pa kun dga’ bo nyal khri’i steng du bzhag nas / bcom ldan ’das ga
la bder song ste phyin nas bcom ldan ’das kyi drung du bzhag go / de nas bcom ldan
’das kyis tshe dang ldan pa kun dga’ bo la bka’ stsal pa / kun dga’ bo khyod ci sdug
bsngal mi bzad pa / drag pa tsha ba’i tshor bas thebs sam / btsun pa bcom ldan ’das de
lta lags so / kun dga’ bo khyod de’i phyir legs par rab tu nyon la yid la zung shag dang
bshad do / kun dga’ bo khyod la reg pa’i ro langs chen po stobs che ba / gdul dka’ ba /
mthong na gnod pa bdun yod de / bdun gang zhe na / ’di lta ste / phreng ba ’dzin ces
bya ba dang / nor bu ’dzin dang / gtum po dang / gdol pa dang / rma bya’i snying dang /
tshe zad dang / la gcan te / ro langs chen po bdun po de dag ni stobs che ba / gdul dka’
ba / bsnyen par dka’ ba / rdzu ’phrul che ba / mthu che ba’o / kun dga’ bo ro langs re
res kyang ’dod na rkang pa g.yon pa’i mthe bos ri’i rgyal po ri rab kyang ’phen te / ri’i
rgyal po ri rab yungs ’bru tsam du rnam par ’jig go / steng du bltas na sa ’gas par byed
do / phyogs su bltas na ’chi bar ’gyur ro / phyogs mtshams su bltas na mes sreg par
byed do / de dag gis khyod la reg go.

IVb A best-reading selection based on the versions of the Peking (Vol.8, p.175) and
sDe dge (Vol.95, pp.475f) Canon editions.

’byung po ’byung mo kun bsgrub pa’i cho ga rab tu rgyas pa’o /
rdo rje ’chang chen po ’jig rten gsum gyi bdag pos ’di skad ces gsungs so /

chu bo’i gram dang / dur khrod dang / shing gcig pa dang / lha gnas pa’i khang pa
dang / dpal rdo rje ’chang gi khyim dang / rigs kyi gnas rnams su bsgrub par bya ste /
skad cig nyid kyis ’grub par ’gyur ro / gal te ma grub na ’byung po dang ’byung mo
rigs dang rgyud du bcas ma lus la phyung par ’gyur ro /

de nas dbang phyug chen po’i lha chen pos bcom ldan ’das kyi zhabs la spyi bos

phyag ’tshal te / bcom ldan ’das la ’di skad ces gsol to /

khro bo’i bdag po chen po gdug pa dang ma rungs pa rnams gsod par byed pa bshad

du gsol /

de na ’di gsungs pa tsam gyis dpal rdo rje ’chang gi ba spu’i bu ga rnams nas rdo rje

’bar ba du ma byung bar gyur te / ’byung po dang ’byung mo thams cad kyi lus bskams
shing brgya byin dang / tshangs pa dang / khyab ’jug la sogs pa lha thams cad bsad par
gyur to /

de nas de bzhin gshegs pa thams cad kyis ngo mtshar dang bcas pas ’di skad ces

gsungs so /

legs so dpal ldan rdo rje ’chang khro bo’i bdag po chen po ma ’ongs pa’i dus na

’byung po dang ’byung mo tshar gcod par byed pa ni legs so /

de nas yang slar ro’i rnam par shes pa ’gugs pa’i sngags gsungs pa / om vajra ayu

se

sara sarasmin /

de nas gsungs pa tsam gyis dpal rdo rje ’chang gi shangs kyi bu ga nas rlung chen po

ro ’tsho bar byed pa byung bar gyur te / de bzung ba tsam gyis ’byung po dang ’byung
mo rnams kyi lus la zhugs so / zhugs pa tsam gyis ’byung po dang ’byung mo rnams
langs te cher ’jigs shing rab tu ’dar bar gyur pas bcom ldan ’das bskyab tu gsol /

bcom ldan ’das kyi bka’ bzhin bgyid do zhes smras so..

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IVc A best-reading text based on three collections: Vol.9, pp.92-98 of the 1973 (Thim
phu) edition of the rNying ma rgyud ’bum; Vol.3, columns 356-364 of the 1973 (New
Delhi) edition of the rNying ma rgyud bcu bdun; and, Vol.1, fol. 48r-51r, of the 1985
(Bum thang) edition of the rNying ma rgyud bcu bdun.

bcom ldan ’das padma dbang chen rang gnas kyi sku la phyag ’tshal lo /
de nas bcom ldan ’das dbang chen gyi sku’i spyan sngar / Buddha He ru kas ro langs

gser du bsgrub pa ’di smras so /

e ma ho / phyogs bcu’i lha dang klu rnams nyon/ rnal ’byor gang zhig stobs ldan pas/

dben pa’i gnas su rab song la / ro langs gser gyi sgrub pa brtsam / shin tu dben pa’i gnas
der yang / dkyil ’khor ’dom gang gru bzhi bya / de nas chag chag rab btab la / phyi nang
gsang ba’i mtshams nyid bcad /

phyi mtshams gcad par bya ba ni / gna kyi phyogs bzhi dag tu yang / rgyal chen dag

la mtho bzhi ste / gtor ma cha re mtho rtsar btang / shog bu sor bzhi pa re la / rgyal chen
bzhi yi sngags bris la / rang rang phyogs phyogs dag tu dgod / de ni phyi’i mtshams su
bstan /

nang mtshams bcad pa ’di lta ste / khro bo bcu yi sngags kyis bcad /
gsang ba ’khor lo mtshon chas bcad /
gtor ma cha gsum rab tu btang / gtor ma cha gsum med pa na / gser skyems dag ni

rgyas par btang / chab gtor nus tshad dag tu btang /

de ltar mtshams bcad rdzogs pa dang / ’bru lnga’i cho ga rdzogs par bya / mchod

rten brgyad ni gdab bya zhing / bshags pa chen po rdzogs par bya /

de ltar sngon ’gro rab rdzogs nas / de nas nang du ’ong ba dang / dkyil ’khor chen po

de nyid la / thig ni rab tu gdab par bya / rnal ’byor chen po gsum gyis bsgrub / rdo rje
slob dpon gsang ba des / rdo rje rgyal po bu mchig la / thig skud sna ni legs sbyin la /
bar snang dag tu ’then nas ni / sring sring lan gsum rdo rje bya / nub nas shar du kha
bltas la / thig gcig dkyil du gdab par bya / de la sogs te thig rnams gdab /

de nas tshon nyid rab tu dgye / zhi ba’i dkyil ’khor rab tu bzhengs / de yi steng du

rdzas rnams bsag / sgo la gri dang gra bzhir mda’ / dar dkar yol ba dag kyang bya / dpal
gyi gtor ma byang phyogs su / lho ru ma mo’i gtor ma gzhag / shar du ’byung po’i gtor
ma gzhag / nub tu phud dang rakta’o / de ni dkyil ’khor bstan pa’o /

de yang ro de len pa’i tshe / ro langs la sogs gdul ba’i phyir / ’chi bdag gshin rje gnas

pa’i sar / sngags dang ldan pa’i mtshon cha brdeg / de nas ro khur mi de la / myos pa’i
chu yis rab myos bya /

de nas ro de bsgrub par bya / dkyil ‘khor pho brang dbus dag tu / brgyang shing dag

dang ldan pa ste / skra bcings thor tshugs rnam gdag go / rang rang rgyan cha dag gis
brgyan /

dang po spos chu ’o mas bkru / de ltar dkyil ’khor steng du bzhag /
bsgral ba thabs ni rnam gsum ste / tshe ’das don phyir bsgral ba dang / mthu rtsal

dbyung phyir bsgral ba dang / nyams chag bskang phyir bsgral ba’o / de ltar bsgral bar
bya ba’i phyir / bsgrub pa rab ’bring gsum du bya /

tshe ’das don phyir bsgral ba na / dbang bskur byin brlab bya ba dang / rigs drug

drang dang lam bstan bya / lan chags gtor ma rgyun du btang / tshogs dang mchod pa
rgyun mi gcad / dus bzhi’i tshogs ni sna tshogs btang / mthu rtsal dbyung phyir bsgral
ba na / bsgrub zhag gsum byed pa na / zhag gnyis khro bo’i phrin las bya /

de nas dkyil ’khor steng nyid du / slob dpon gsang ba’i rgya bkrol la / mthu dang ral

gri mtshon cha bsnam / rdo rje’i lus po nyid la yang / g.yang gzhi dur khrod rgyan gyis
brgyan / lag tu mtshon cha’i dbang bskur la / ske la ral gri rab btab la / gang la dmigs
pa’i ming bris la / dmigs pa rab tu bsam par bya / ma nyes rabs rnams rab tu brjod /

de nas mgo nyid chod pa dang / ha ha zhes bya’i sgra brjod cing / bstan pa ’jig pa bsad

pa yi / legs so zhes byar rab tu brjod / de nyid ’breg pa’i sngags ’di’o / o

m padmanta kri

ta kro [d]ha hu lu hu lu h

um kha hi / sngags de lan grangs brgya rtsa brjod /

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33

sngags rnams brjod cing dbang chen bsgom / dbang chen sku nyid gsal ba dang / rdo

rje’i ging po mtshan ldan des / mtshon cha’i rdzas rnams rdzogs pa dang / khro bo
’gying ba’i stobs kyis ni / dkyil ’khor rab tu bskor bya zhing / bsgral ba’i las rnams
rdzogs par bya / legs par brjod pa gong bzhin no / rgyun du bgrang ba’i sngags ’di
brjod / o

m padmanta kri ta badzra kro dha ha ya gri ba hum hri / gsang ba’i sngags ’di

mang du brjod / dbang chen yum dang bcas pa te / de nas rdo rje ging po deds /

slob dpon dag la mgo nyid dbul slob dpon gsang ba de nyid kyis / bde gshegs mkha’

’gro’i thugs dam bskang / de nas tsitta dbyung ba’i sngags / ’di skad drag tu brjod bya
zhing / slob dpon tsitta phyung shes bsgo / de nas rdo rje bshan pa des / sngags ’di brjod
cing tsitta phyung / sa ma ya kha hi / tsitta h

um ’dus kha dur ma ra ya hum / sngags des

tsitta drang bar bya / ging pa brtul zhugs ldan pa na / za zhing slob dpon de la dbul / de
nas tshe ’das spar ba dang / dngos grub blang ba’i sngags kyang bzlas / dngos grub len
pa’i ’dus nyid du / ro de longs na dngos grub ’thob / de tshe langs pa de nyid la / bdag
nyis dbang chen rab ldan pas / mtshon cha phur pa dag gis kyang / gnas dag tu ni gdab
bya zhing / sngags ’di brgya ni rtsa brgyad brjod / o

m hrih tha sarba siddhi badzra hum

/ sngags des dngos grub ’thob pa’o / tshe ’das de nyid spar bya ba’i / sngags ’dis sbyor
ba’i lhums su ’phang / o

m dhram ka dza e spa ra na phat phat / rigs lnga’i sras su dbang

bskur ro/ sngags ’dis dbang bskur bstan pa’o/ o

m swa lam du tring hri ta ya stwam /

sku gsum rdo rje’i skur gyur nas / ’od lnga’i mu khyud bar du’o / ’od zer sku lnga

’bar bar bsam / de nas slob dpon gsang ba des / dbang bskur byin rlabs rdzogs pa dang /
sha rnams legs par bsha’ bya zhing / ’khor na gnas pa’i bu rnams dang / bdag nyid
longs spyod spel bya’i phyir / mam sa za zhing sngags ’di’o / o

m ah hum hri da ya si ti

hum pha

t / de ni longs spyod sngags su bstan / mthu rtsal dbyung phyir bsgral ba’o /

tshe ’das don phyir bsgral ba na / sgrub pa tha ma’i nub nyid du / ro yi rgyan blang

rgyang phog la / zhi ba’i dkyil ’khor steng dag tu / kha ’bub dag tu bsnyal byas la /
rgyab tu thig rnams legs btab la / khro bo’i dkyil ’khor rab bris la / mchod pa’i tshogs
rnams rab rdzogs bya / slob dpon nyid kyis sna drangs la / dkyil ’khor ro yi mtha’ ma
bskor / padmanta kri ta dbyangs blangs shing / dbang mchod bro ni rab tu brdung /
rgyab kyi tshangs thig steng nas bya / rab tu bsha’ zhing dbang rdzogs bya / sngags
’di’i ’od zer rab ‘phros bsam / ru lu gar gyi mchod pa’i sngags / sna tshogs mchod
phyir sngags ’di’o / o

m ru lu ru lu hum bhyo hum / sngags ’di’i ’od zer rab ’phros pa

/ sku dang gsung dang thugs nyid las / ’od ’phros sgrib pa sbyang bar bya / de nas bya
byed zin pa dang / nang khrol snam lnga mchod pa’i rgyu / mig dang rnam lnga mchod
par ’bul / de ni tshe ’das don phyir ro /

nyams chag bskang phyir bsgral ba ni / bsha’ lugs gong dang mthun pa la / bsgrub pa

nub ni gnyis ’das nas / khro bo’i dkyil ’khor bzhengs nas ni / mchod pa’i yo byad ci ’byor
bsag / dkyil ’khor mtha’ ma rab tu bskor / rang gi yi dam gang yin bsgom / bskang gso’i
rdzas rnams gang yod sbyar /

bshags pa bskang gso rgyas par bya / longs spyod sngags dang bya thabs rnams /

gong du smos pa kho na’o / tshogs dang gtor ma rgyun mi gcad / bar chad bgegs rnams
tshar gcod bya / gshed byed dpral zhing lam bstan bya / bskang ba’i rgyud dang sbyar
te bskang / tshogs dang mchod pa’i yo byad la / ’bru dang ting ’dzin ldan pas brlab / ma
mo’i thugs dam rtag tu bskang / de ni nyams chag bskang lugs so /

de ltar ro sgrub rab tu brtsam / sngags ’dis thams cad ’grub pa’o / o

m sarba ka ru na /

padma badzra pa ni / badzra sa twa sa ma ya

a yuh a mri ta ti ra hum phat swa ha /

sngags de bzla zhing dngos grub blang / srin lag mthe bong bar dag tu / ngal gnyis
mnyam zhing tsitta bzung / dus bzhi’i tshogs kyi che na yang / dngos grub blangs shing
gser du bsam /

de ltar ting ’dzin ldan pa yis / lo gnyis sgrub pa byas pa na / lce nyid gser du ’gyur

bar nges / lce nyid gser du gyur pa na / srin lag ting ’dzin ldan pas blang / blangs la
sbring rtsi’i chu dang sbyar / zhib par btags zhing gsang sngags bzlas / de nas kun gyis
bgos la bza’ / zos nas skye med byang chub thob / thun mong dngos grub thams cad

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thob / zas ni yid la dran pas tshim / lus la gos med gcer bur tshugs / gnyer ma med cing
gzhon nur ’gyur / lo ni lnga brgyar gzhon nur gnas / de nas tshe ’phos phyir mi ldog /
yon tan de ltar ’byung ba’o.

IVd A best-reading text based on the Peking (Vol.7, pp.208-211) and sDe dge (Vol.90,
pp.550-565, passim) canon editions of the root text. Material in round brackets is
from the Peking edition of the Krodhavijayakalpaguhyatantrasya

tika (Vol.78, pp.20-

65; the commentary on Chapter Six is on pp.31-33).

[ ... sngags dag gis gang dag tu / bcings ba der ni byin rlob pa / ro langs zhes bya’i
phyag rgya ’di / khro bos gsungs pa bshad par bya / dur khrod dag gis thams cad ni /
gang la rtag tu rag lus pa’o / de nas lag pa gnyis ka yi / sor mo phan tshun bsnol byas
te / sor mo gung mo gzhibs te bsgrer / mdzub mo gnyis kyis srin lag gnyis / mthe bong
gnyis kyis srin lag gnyis / legs par bzung nas dgug par bya / mthe’u chung gnyis kyang
ngan du dgug / de bzhin du ni mthe bong gnyis / phan tshun bsnol te rkyang bar bya /
shes rab can gyis ro langs ’di rtag tu tshul bzhin khro bos bstan / {bcu bdun po zhes ...
thos pa tsam gyi mod la yang / zhes pa lha ma yin rnams so / rmongs par ’gyur ba zhes
pa ’thom par ’gyur ro zhes so}]

ha har gyur ba’i dkyil ’khor ni / ... yi dags phal chen bshad pa bzhin / ’di yang gru

bzhi lham par bya / khyad par dag tu phyogs kun tu / mkhas pas me ni spar bar bya /
khru brgyad lhag chad med par ni / cho ga bzhin du bri bar bya / sgo sgo dag tu gsal
shing gis / phug pa’i yi dags khrag can bzhag / dbus su mgo dang bral ba yi / mi ro ro
smad gsal bar bzhag / yi dags phal chen dkyil ’khor bzhin / tha mar yi dags phreng bar
dgod /

[khro bo yi ni gtso bo’i sngags / mtshog ma spyi gtsug la sogs med / yi ge bcu bdun

blo ldan gyis / mgo med ro yi steng du gzhag / zhal drug pa la zhabs kyang drug / de
bzhin phyag ni bcu gnyis pa / rab tu ’bar ba drag po’i gzugs / snga ma bzhin du gzhag
par bya / yi dags mang po phreng la sogs / sngags des de la mchod par bya / ’dir ni gtor
ma sha chen du / gsungs pas gzhan gyis mi bya’o / khrag gi gtor ma’i cho ga dang / de
bzhin bdug pa kun sme ba’i / de nas dpal ldan rig ’dzin gyis / ro langs phyag rgya
bcings nas ni / gtor ma me tog dbul la sogs / rnam pa kun tu khro bos bya / ... snying gar
ro langs rgya gzhag la / {ro langs phyag rgya bcings la ro langs sngags kyang bzlas la /
bskul ba’i tshig che ge mo zhig u tsad ya zhes bya ba dang ldan par mtshan mo stong
rtsa brgyad du bzlas so} / de la rab tu bskor bar bya / de na khro bo chen po yis / shin
tu bkrus shing legs par brgyan / ... ral gri lag par blangs nas ni / dpa’ bo’i rkang pa
g.yon pa yis / de yi snying gar mnan pas ni / khro bo yi ni gtso bo yi / yi ge bcu bdun
sngags bzlas so /]

de’i sngags drag pos bskul ba dang / yi dags de ni g.yo bar ’gyur / ha har gyur ba

’khrugs pa dang / de bzhin ha ha’i sgra yang ’byin / de nas bdag gis langs pa la /
mtshon cha snon po ’bar ba yis / bcad pa’i sha dang khrag bcas pa’i / mchod yon de la
’bul bar bya / rig pa ’dzin pa de yi ni / sems kyi drod ni des shes nas / mchod yon blangs
te dkyil ’kho ni / ha har gyur ba ’jigs par byed / de nas bdag nyid chen po de / ’jigs su
rung ba’i gzugs mthong nas / gshin rje’i gshed po dga’ bo yi / ro langs phyag rgya bstan
par bya / de nas gshin rje’i gshed po ni / yi dwags lus la gnas pa des / ro langs nyid kyi
rgya mthong nas / rig pa ’dzin pa de yi ni / sems drod rig nas ’dod pa’i mchog / sbyin
par byed la gdon mi za / khro bo’i rgyal po slar gshegs nas / mi ro sa la ’gyel bar ’gyur
/ de yi lus ni de nyid kyang / gsar du ’gyur ba gdon mi za / de tshe grogs po rnams dang
yang / sems can rnams la ci bder sbyin /

bdag nyid chen po dpa’ bo yi / bsgrub pa bshad pa ’di yin te ... sems gzhan pa yi

bsgrub pa pos / khro bo’i rgyal po de bsgrub na / de nas langs nas myur bar ni / grogs
dang bcas pa gsod par ’gyur / ro langs phyag rgya mi shes na / des ni ci ltar drag ’gyur
kyang / khro bo’i rgyal po de yi ni / sgrub pa po ni gsad par ’gyur.

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IVe In order, the selections in this portion of Part II are created from: Best-reading
texts from the two traditions, the Peking (Vol.9, p.195) and the rNying ma rgyud ’bum
(Vol.16 of the 1982, Thim phu edition, published as: The mTshams brag manuscript
of the Rñi

o ma rgyud ’bum, pp.542-544) text traditions. And, the sDe dge (Vol.98,

pp.136f) and rNying ma rgyud ’bum (1973, Thim phu edition, Vol.12, pp.172f) text
traditions.

shi ba slang ba’i rtog pa ’di / khams gsum ’khor ba’i nad pa rnams / rtag chad mthar

shi ro gling nas / gti mug bam chen ro blangs te / skye ’gag med par blang ba’i phyir /
ro la yid bzhin nor bu yi / sngags kyis bstab ste mnan par bya /

ro yi gnyen por bdag gyur nas / ro sngags rgyun mi ’chad par bzlas / ro yi gzi byin

byung ba na / bar chad med pa’i brtson ’grus bya /

ro de ’gul bar gyur pa dang / rang gi ’gyur tsis byug par bya / ro yi yan lag kun bcings

nas / bzlas pa drag po rgyun mi gcad / gang der langs par gyur pa dang / cho ’phrul ’jigs
tshul ston par byed / brtul zhugs ldan pa’i skyes bu yis / de tshe ro yi lce bcad nas / ro
la brdabs na gser du ’gyur / lce bcad ral gri mtshon cha dang / ro yi mgo bo gcad pa des
/ ji ltar ’dod pa’i rdzas ’grub ste / mgo thod go char bzung nas ni / lce yi ral gri’i mtshon
thogs nas / lha min g.yul yang bzlog par ’gyur /

ro langs grub pa’i rkang mgyogs ni /
dpag pa’i tshad las ’das pa ste / skyes bu rtsal dang ldan pa yis / phyogs bzhir bltas

te dus gcig tu / mda’ ’phangs sa la ma babs bar / mda’ blangs skad cig ’jig rten bskor /
skyes bu lag tshod ma yal bar / de ma thag tu gnas su sleb / yud ltar shin tu myur ba
’thob /

ro la ’dod pa thams cad ’byung / ro la ro bsgrubs grub na / ro yi dngos po mi snang

bar / gang ltar bsgrubs pa der snang phyir / ro la rnam rtog ga la yod / ro la ro yi rang
bzhin dag / med par shes pa thag chod bzhin / spyod pas de ltar mnyam spyod na / lta
spyod mnyam zhes dam pas bshad /

’di ni shi ba slong ba yi / bdud rtsi dam pa’i spyod pa’o zhes.

The sDe dge (Vol.98, pp.136-7) and rNying ma rgyud ’bum (1973, Thim phu edition,

Vol.12, pp.172f) textual traditions:

sems dpa’i rdo rje snying po des / shi ba yongs su slong ba zhes bya ba’i ting nge

’dzin la snyoms par bzhugs so /

ro yi sgrub lugs chen po ni /
dur khrod chen po’i gnas rnams su / ro yi rdzas rnams btsal nas kyang / ’dod pa

bsgyur ba’i sngags kyis btab / ro yi steng du gnas nas ni / ro yi gnyen por bdag bsams
nas / ro sngags rgyun mi ’chad par bzlas / ro la khrag dang mdangs byung na / ’grub par
’gyur ba’i rtags yin te / rgyun mi ’chad par ting ’dzin bya /

ro yi ’gul bar gyur pa dang / gser ’gyur rtsis ni byug par bya / ro yi yan lag kun bcings

nas / sngags ni dag par bzlas par bya / ro nyid langs par gyur pa dang / ro yi cho ’phrul
ston par byed / brtul zhugs ldan pa’i skyes bu yis / de tshe ro yi lce bcad nas / ro la
brdabs na gser du ’gyur / de bzhin ji ltar ’dod pa yi / rkyen gyis bsgyur na de ltar ’gyur
/ lce bcad ral gri mtshon cha des / ro yi bhan dha bcad pa dang / ji ltar ’dod pa’i rdzas
’grub ste / bhan dha mgo ru bzung nas ni / lce yi ral gri thogs nas ni / lha min g.yul yang
bzlog par ’gyur /

ro langs ’grub pa’i rkang mgyogs ni /
dpag pa’i tshad las ’das pa ste / skyes bu rtsal dang ldan pa bzhis / phyogs bzhi dag

tu kha bltas nas / dus gcig mda’ yi rgyang ’phangs nas / mda’ ni sa la ma ’babs par /
bzhi ka bar snang las blangs nas / skad cig tsam gyis ’jig rten skor / skyes bu lag tshod
ma yal bar / de ma thag tu gnas su slebs / ro la ’dod pa kun ’byung zhes / dus gsum
rgyal ba rnams kyis bshad / ces gsungs so / ro langs bsgrub pa’i ting nge ’dzin to.

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IVf The following best-reading text is compiled from the Peking (Vol.9, p.38) and
sDe dge (Vol.96, pp.257-259) versions. Some additional materials in the transla-
tion and notes are provided from these commentaries, found in Vol.78 of the Peking
canon: The

Arya Subahuparippcchapadarthatippani (PAD) and the Arya Subahu-

parip

pcchanamatantrapindartha (PIN).

lus la rma med skyes pa’i ro mthong na / ral gri be con lag na thogs pa yis / nyin par

thog thag tu ni bsrung bar bya / dur khrod khang stong dang ni shing gcig dang / bzhi
mdo ’bab chu dag gam chu klung ngam / mtsho’am rgya mtsho’am ni ri bo la / skad cig
gis kyang ro langs grub par bya /

gang yang rung ba’i gnas gcig brtags nas ni / sa dang lci ba la sogs byug par bya /

gtsang ma der ni dkar nag dmar po’am / tshon rtsi sna tshogs rnams kyis dam tshig
bri / gong du smos pa’i dkyil ’khor de rnams las / bsams nas ’dod pa gang yang rung
ba gcig / dad pa chen pos rigs kyi yum gyi mchog / zlos shing rab tu bsgrims te bri bar
bya /

’jigs pa med pa’i g.yog gis de blangs nas / khyer nas ’ongs te ku sha’i steng bzhag

ste / skra dang ba spu rnams kyang bregs nas su / de yi mod la ’bru mar dag gis bsku /
de nas bum pa zhabs mi gnag pa bzhi / gtsang ma’i chus bkang khrus rtsis sbyar te
bkru /

de nas gos dkar phrug cig bskon nas su / de nas dkyil ’khor dbus su rtswa stan dang /

ma nyams me tog steng du ro bzhag cing pas sdug par bya / phreng bas gdags shing me
tog sil mas gtor /

sha dang nya sha mar khu til bsres pa’i / khur pa la sogs ci snyed bungs bskyed de /

’byung po klu dang sha za gnod sbyin dang / ’dre la bla ’og phyogs su sbyin par bya /
grogs po mchog ldan bdag nyid bsrung bya ste / rtse gcig sems kyis gsang sngags bzlas
brjod bya /

ro ni ldang du nye ba’i tshe na ni / ’jigs pa’i gzugs can bgegs ni sna tshogs ’byung /

gtsug tor rgyal po’i sngags kyis thal ba’am / ma grugs yungs dkar sogs la bsngags nas
su / gtor nas phyogs bzhi dag nas ’ong ba’i bgegs / gsang sngags mthu yis de dag ’byer
bar ’gyur /

de dag zhi bar bya phyir khro bo ni / bdud rtsis thabs sbyor drag shul las can sbyar /

bgegs rnams bcom pas de nas ro de yang / gsang sngags mthu yis myur du ldang bar
’gyur / gang zhig gsang sngags cho ga zhib mo las / mthong ba de ni thogs med nges
par ’grub /

gal te ro de langs par gyur pa las / de yi gsang sngags cho ga mi shes na’ang / gsang

sngags gzhan du bstan pa’i cho ga yis / langs pa de la rang gis dngos grub blang / gter
gyi phyogs dang phug tu ’gro ba dang / ral gri andza bzhon pa mngag gzhug dang /
’byung khung gser ’gyur rtsi dang bcud kyis len / mkha’ la ’gro ba’i dngos grub rab tu
ster / bsrung ba’i stobs med sngags kyi stobs med dang / dka’ thub stobs med sems
stobs med pa yi / blo gzhan gang zhig ro lang dngos grub tshol / de ni mtshan mo rgyu
ba rnams kyis bsad.

Vasilev’s precis:

“Il y a un Ciddhi que l’on appelle Vet

alaciddi (en chinois fou do-no), qui s’accomplit

sur un corps mort qui doit être choisi d’après une description: il ne doit avoir aucune
impefection, il doit être frais. Après avoir choisi un lieu convenable, on élève des
mandala avec des vases; un aide y apporte le corps mort qui d’abord a été nettoyé, lavé
et revêtu de ses meilleurs habits; on commence la lecture des conjurations dont quelques-
unes fournissent le Ciddi, et d’autres chassent l’influence des quelques-unes fournissent
le Ciddi, et d’autres chassent l’influence des dragons et des Preta. Si cependant il s’est
montré de mauvais signes, quoique le corps se soit soulevé, cela indique qu’il y a
obstacle de la part des démons; alors, pendant la lecture de certains conjurations, on

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jette sur la face du corps mort, des grains de moutarde mêlés avec de la cendre; avec
cela on chasse l’influence et le corps se recouche; s’il ne se montre pas de mauvais
signes, cela indique que, par la force de la conjuration, le corps a vraiment trouvé
l’accomplissement de l’enchantement; c’est alors que l’on doit déclarer ce que l’on
désire, c’est-à-dire si l’on veut voir des trésors cachés, ou entrer dans la grotte d’Indra
pour avoir des remèdes miraculeux, etc.; tout cela s’obtient.”

IVg This is from the rNal ’byor ras pa padma lhun grub bstan ’dzin rgya mtsho’i
gsung ba’i rnams thar kun gsal me long, the third work in Autobiographies of three
spiritual masters of Kutang, Thim phu, 1979, columns 591-597; this passage is
from columns 692-696. Non-standard spellings are preserved.

de nas yar sma snang du sleb dus / zhag gsum bzhi tsam nas bla ma’i zhal nas chos

bstan ’dzin dang / u rgyan bstan ’dzin khyed gnyis dor gong du khros du song la nang
mchod byas gyu thod pa gcig tshol shog gsung ’byung /

gsung ma thag tu gnyis sma snang gyi du khrod chen po bsil ba mtshal du mtshan

mo phyin nas ro khang gcig la gnyis rngas sprad nas nyal / mtshan phyed lhag tsam la
gnyis ro khang de shig pas thod pa med pa ro khang stong pa yin ’dug /

de nas yang ro khang re re shig pas / khong ni mo thod dum bu gcig pa gcig dang

’phrad ’dug / yang bdag la ro khang stong pa gcig dang phrad / mched grogs khong ni
thod pa spog gin ’dug / nga ni du khrod gyi gyab phyogs la tshal du phyin nas / tshol
gin yod pas skad cig la skad tang sgra cig ’dir ’dir sgrags ’dug /

gang gi gcan zan yin nam bsam nas snyan pas / ro khang gcig gi nang na sgrags

’dug / de ni spyod gyi cho ’phrul yin ’dug bsam nas thog pa med par ro khang gi steng
du chong cing dkyil dkrung bcas nas sdod / ting ’dzin ngang nas glu chung ’di blangs
so/

da dang lha ’dre cho ’phrul gsum / nga snang stong ’gags med lta ba la / khrul pa

med do lha ’dre tshogs / ro langs lha ’dre’i cho ’phrul ci ’byung shog /

zer zhing lta ba’i ma thul par ro khang rnams kyang sber zhing ’gul / rdo rnams

kyang skad rog sgrags ’dug / lus nyang dar chum cig ’byung / yang khros ma nag mo’i
ting nge ’dzin gyi ngang nas phat gsum tsam gyab na yang ma zhi /

de ni skad cig la rkang lag rnams kyi ro khang gi kha shig nas mun nag nang du lag

pa gnyis kyi ci yod tshol pas / mi ro’i lag pa sbom zhing ring ba cig zin ’byung /

yar theng cig then pas kho yang skad gnyis tsam ’dir ’byung / slar yang bshed pyug

nas theng gcig then pas / kho yang skad theng gcig sgrags ’byung / de ma thag tu ro
langs de’i skyed pa la lag pa gnyis kyi gdam nas phyi ru kyur pas / zla ba gcig tsam
song ba’i rgan ro skra dkar cho le ba lus yang ma nyams gdong pa yang ma nyams pa
skya khro leb cig ’dug /

ro langs de bsgral thub nas chos bstan ’dzin gar yod ’bod du phyin / de nas gang

yang ma gyab par thod pa ni dpral bar mig khung bdzub gcig rdal ’dug / rkang dung
thon nas khyer yongs /

de nas bla ma la lo rgyud rnams zhus pas / bla ma’i zhal na ro langs dngos ma rang

yin ’dug / du khrod bdag mo dang lha ’dre’i chos ’phrul yin gsung / mi gzhan ma
rnams la ni nga yi ro langs bsgral ba yin gsung ’dug.

* I wish to thank Geoff Childs, Dan Martin, and Johan Elverskog for suggestions and other
contributions to this paper.

Notes

1.

Mayrhofer’s Kurzgefasstes etymologisches Wörterbuch, Vol.3; only Charpentier’s re-
constructed vi-t

ada seems to point in a useful direction.

2.

bh

utadhirthitasavabhede amarah; dvarapalakah; mallavisera; sivaganadhipavise rah—

these from the 1967 ed. of the

Sabdakalpadruma and the 1970 Vacaspatyam.

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3.

For example, the “doorkeeper” reference is most likely to Agnivet

ala, guardian of the

western gate of K

amakhya in the K

alikapurana (p.95, Vol.1, of B. Shastri’s Kalika-

pur

ana, Delhi, 1991). Likewise, the reference to Siva’s gana comes from a probably

late

Saivite tradition, which places nearly all the denizens of charnel grounds (

samsana)

and many other classes of spirits under

Siva’s rule; see, e.g., A. Danielou, Hindu poly-

theism, New York, 1964, p.213.

4.

Brahmanic tradition holds that Bh

utas proceed from Brahman, and that they should be

considered as a class of Asura, which makes sense from the functional point of view, as
the latter also represent the forces of chaos (see F.B.J. Kuiper, “The basic concept of
Vedic religion”, Ancient Indian Cosmogony, New Delhi, 1983, pp.9-22). By the time
of the Hariva

msa, however, Bhutas, Pisacas, Yakras, etc., are considered the offspring

of Krodha. However, from beliefs present in the Epics to modern anthropological studies
of the spiritual beings associated with burial and death, it is clear that Bh

utas also are

regarded as the spirits of departed human beings, and thus are rightly referred to as
“ghosts”. (See on this, e.g., Ruth and Stanley Freed, Ghosts: Life and death in North
India, Seattle, 1993, p.80, and Jonathan Parry, A death in Banaras, Cambridge, 1994,
passim.)

It would seem that popular belief in India has long maintained that Bh

utas are, by

their association with Pretas, similar to them in nature, as in the compound bh

utpret.

However, other traditions have also developed; Vet

alas are sometimes even consid-

ered the spirits of dead human beings; they can move from one corpse to another, if
they dislike the body they are in, as in W. Crooke, The popular religion and folklore of
Northern India, London, 1896, Vol.I, p.241.

The situation is no clearer in Buddhism, despite the fact that its cosmology placesmore

emphasis on aid to spiritual beings. Thus, the early Indic-Tibetan word list,the
Mah

avyutpatti (Suzuki ed., #4753-4767), also places Bhutas—and many spirits tradi-

tionally put under them—in the same category with Pretas, while excluding the Vet

alas.

Other studies of non-Tantric Buddhist literature don’t find a relationship between Pretas
and Bh

utas at all (cf. B.C. Law, The Buddhist conception of spirits, London, 1936,

pp.1-20 especially).

The Mah

avyutpatti is based on a small number of Vinaya and main-line Mahayana

texts. Most other overviews, as A.G.S. Kariyawasam’s entry on Bh

uta in the Encyclo-

paedia of Buddhism, are also not concerned with broader cultural and cosmological
issues. However, in Tantric and magical texts the nature and functions of spirits are often
important elements. Since many of these ritual texts predate the Mah

avyutpatti, they

are important sources for this neglected dimension of Buddhist religious culture in
India and Tibet.

5.

I have consulted the Bh

utadamaratantraraja/’Byung po ’dul ba’i rgyud kyi rgyal po

chen po from the sDe dge bKa’ ’gyur (Vol.95 [rGyud ’bum], Delhi, 1979, pp.475-525
and one of the many versions of the Bh

utadamaratantra from the Hindu Tantric tradi-

tion (Bh

utadamaratantram, mula evam Hindi anuvada sahita, Varanasi, 1993). (It

may be that the Hindu versions derive from the Buddhist, as Bhattacharya, below, main-
tains.) Both texts deal with enjoying the results of the conquest by Vajradhara, etc., over
a set of spiritual beings. In neither text does the Vet

ala play much role, being men-

tioned only in passing in each, once in a mantra and once in a list of beings. However,
it is possible that they are implicitly considered to be within one of the the categories;
see the sketch from this tantra given below.) On the Bh

utadamara traditions see T.

Goudriaan and S. Gupta, Hindu Tantric and Sakta literature, Wiesbaden, 1981, pp.118f.
B. Bhattacharya, “The cult of Bhuta-damara”, Man in India. 11.1931.83-115, com-
pares the two texts in general terms.

6.

So says E. Washburn Hopkins, Epic mythology, 1974 Delhi reprint, pp.36-38 and 46n.
However, the Hariva

msa, an adjunct to the Mahabharata, does contain a little useful

data.

OF

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39

7.

Crooke, op.cit., Vol.I, p.242, reports, inter alia, that Bh

uta usually live in trees in

samsana. Sarkar (B. Sarkar, The folk-element in Hindu culture, London & New York,
1917, pp.90f) tells of a “corpse dance” in Bengal and Orissa—the

Siva Gambh

ira—

which is a

savasadhana rite (see PART I, iv, infra) involving getting a corpse and

awakening it, then placing it in a tank or hanging it from a tree. Certain rituals were
then performed on the corpse, or using the corpse, which, according to the author, are
no longer practiced.

On the association of Vet

ala with Yakras and Rakrasas, see Tawney’s translation of

the Kathasarits

agara, Calcutta, 1880, Vol.II, p.565.

8.

The term *Mah

avetala was almost certainly created on analogy with Mahabhuta, a

less-frequently used term equivalent to Bh

uta as “spirit”; it is found in the

Bh

utadamaratantra, for example. The term is used here also to distinguish these “cos-

mic” spirits from those with more modest powers.

9.

= gaulmika, a soldier in a troop, or its leader; or, a superintendent of forests. Less
likely it is = la gcan pa, guardian of a pass, which is not a translation term.

10. As evidenced also in the Buddhist Bh

utadamaratantra and in other Indian and Tibetan

works on controlling spiritual beings; cf. the brief description of va

sya/subduing,

stambhana/paralyzing, etc., in The Hevajra Tantra: A critical study, Part I, Oxford,
1959, pp.84f.

11. For the texts, see S. Bagchi’s edition, the Suvar

naprabhasasutram, Darbhanga, 1967,

pp.55f, and J. Nobel, Suvar

naprabhasottamasutra: Das Goldglanz-Sutra, Leiden &

Stuttgart, 1944, Vol. I, pp.80-83.

12. Crooke, op.cit., Vol. I, p.250; Vol. II, pp.75f; cf. also the quote from the Sa

mvarodaya-

tantra, below, and fn.52.

13. The Vet

ala figures several times in similes in the La

okavatarasutra: vicitradeharupa

dh

arimayavetalayantrapratima ; mayavetalayantra/sgyu ma Ro langs ’khrul ’khor;

vet

alayantra. Such mechanistic formulations tell us about the zombie-like qualities of

a Vet

ala-inhabited corpse. In the philosophical exposition of this work: An illusion—

a Vet

ala—a machine, or, the machine of illusions of a Vetala’s operation. Things are

not what they seem, and are not in control of themselves. (Suzuki thought a vet

alayantra

to be a wooden image; I think it is only a metaphor created in this text.)

Although this might lend credence to the view that Vet

ala-inhabited corpses are

“zombies”, which some say also fits Tibetan ideas of Ro langs, most of the uses of
such corpses by yogis, as we shall see, don’t correspond to this idea. Therefore, I don’t
believe that vet

alayantra here is particularly helpful in discussing the relationship of

the Vet

ala spirit to the corpse, in either Indian culture or with the Tibetan Ro langs.

This is perhaps another example of the distance between the viewpoints of Tantric and
non-Tantric materials.

The issue of the “zombie”-like nature of the Vet

ala-inhabited body has resulted

from the ambiguous phrasing of passages discussing “tamed” Vet

alas. For example,

the Tantrar

ajatantra (ed. L. Shastri, Delhi, 1981), ch. 17, Vol.31: nidhaya sadhanam-

skandhe careyurv

añchaya ’sya te, “directing one’s sadhana (on the spell, vidya, dis-

cussed above) onto the body (of the deceased), they (the Vet

alas) should act according

to the wishes of (the s

adhaka).” Of course, with zombies the consciousness of the

person—who is not dead—is controlled by magicians. Also, zombies can’t provide
the siddhis described in PART II; they are only capable of menial labor. The limita-
tions of powers, and the moral dimensions of such control, are also important in dis-
cussing the relationship between the Vet

ala and the Ro langs; cf. fn.16 and PART III.

14. There are many anecdotes about the body of the newly dead falling prey to a Vet

ala.

This is supposed to have caused the custom of not leaving corpses unattended in
Northern India. (See the example of the young girl in W. Crooke’s An introduction to
the popular religion and folklore of Northern India, Allahabad, 1894, p.232.)

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That same source (p.232) mentions that measuring a corpse actually prevents a Vet

ala

from entering it. This motif, together with others mentioned here, explains the Tibetan
custom of binding a corpse with rope made from grass. This prevents a Ro langs from
entering it and being able to “stretch” it. (T. Sangay, Bod mi’i ’das mchod = Tibetan
ceremonies of the dead, Dharamsala, 1974, p.11.)

15. V. Rama Rao notes (Elements of Hindu iconography, Delhi, 1985, Vol. I, Pt. 2, p.7)

that Bh

utas should be pictured as less than half the size (three to seven tolas) of Vetalas

or Pretas.

16. A few examples of positive Vet

ala: In the Kathasarits

agara, the Vetala of the V. turns

into a protector of King Vikram

aditya against various evils (Tawney, op.cit., fn.7, Vol.

II, passim). This theme is also found in the M

anasollasa, Book Five, verses 945-955,

where Vet

ala, Preta, etc., are among the spirits a virtuous king can control for good

purposes. In Jambhaladatta’s version of V., a Vet

ala warns the king about a false as-

cetic (see D. Lorenzen’s The K

apalikas and Kalamukhas, New Delhi, 1972, p.65). A

Tamil medical text related to the R

avanatantra tradition, studied by Filliozat, invokes

Vet

ali to protect infants against illness, when she has been propitiated properly (Filliozat,

op.cit., pp.105ff).

Even a tamed Vet

ala can kill, but this is due to completely different motives: He is

following the command of his master/yogi: “Furthermore, all tamed (Vet

ala) consume

the enemies of the yogi at his command.” (sarve’pi vasag

a vakyadasya satruo grasanti

in the Tantrar

ajatantra, op.cit., fn.13, Chap.17, verse 33.) And, we have already seen

what happens to faux yogis who try to call upon them!

17. So identified by R. Meisezahl, “L’

È

tude iconographique des huit cimetières d’après le

traité

Smasanavidhi de Luyi”, Geist und Ikonographie des Vajray

ana-Buddhismus,

Sankt Augustin, 1980, p.38 and 49. This term may, rather, apply to a kind of spiritual
being, in which case it would be a helping spirit for the yogi.

18. Swami Sivananda, Sadhana, Delhi, 1978 reprint ed., pp.228f. On the v

ira sadhaka and

his v

irasadhana, see the texts here, Sivananda’s comments, p.228, and Sanjukta Gupta’s

notes on

savasadhana in Hindu Tantrism, Leiden & Koln, 1979, pp.161f. The latter

provides a more detailed description than does Sivananda; many details from both
agree with materials in PART II.

Of course, Sivananda and Gupta present more normative descriptions. On the other

hand, about 1914 a man was brought to trial for, on the advice of a yogi, going to a
samsana with his wife, cutting off her head, and practicing savasadhana on her corpse.
The purpose of the rite was to render the woman fertile (!), since she was thought to
have been the reason for their childlessness. See the note in Indian antiquary, July,
1924, p.149.

19. See the Sa

mvarodayatantra (p.294 of Shinichi Tsuda’s The Samvarodaya-tantra, To-

kyo, 1974) and Aghora: At the left hand of God, by the pseudonymous Vimalananda
as told to Robert Swoboda, New Delhi, 1993, Chapter Seven in particular.

20. There are several examples in the Kathasarits

agara (op.cit., fn.7) alone: Sometimes a

heroic figure offers his own flesh; the Vet

ala, pleased, restores it to the hero and helps

him. However, when the hero passes the corpse on to another, who tries to evoke the
Vet

ala by pouring ghee in the mouth of the corpse—but then doesn’t offer him flesh—

the Vet

ala attacks and eats him! (Vol. II, pp.205ff; cf. also 248; 358ff.) The motif of

non-yogis resorting to selling human flesh (mah

amamsa) to gain supernatural help

from beings such as Vet

alas dates back at least to the eighth century, where it is an

important dramatic device in Act IV of the M

alatimadhava.

21. Several other siddhis are associated with a successful vet

alasadhana, however. For a

particularly interesting recital of these, see pp.128-130 of The Kulac

udamani Tantra

and the V

amakesvara Tantra, translated by Louise M. Finn, Wiesbaden, 1986. On

“quick-foot” siddhi, see documents three and four in PART II, and fn.51, below.

OF

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41

In an old, local Tibetan adaptation of the V., a siddhi-bestowing (dngos grub can) corpse
will, if it can be held, reveal the secret of revivifying beings. (A.H. Francke, “Die
Geschichten des toten No-rub-can”, Zeitschrift der Deutschen Morgenländischen
Gesellschaft.75.1921.79.)

22. It is proverbial that mantra recitation, combined with correct worship of a spiritual

being and use of pra

nayama, etc., can even bring the dead back to life; cf. W. Crooke,

The popular religion ..., op.cit., Vol. II, p.150. Beings to worship vary according to
tradition, of course; in the Tantrar

ajatantra there is a set of sixteen goddesses on the

outer petals of the Shri Yantra which, when worshipped properly, bestow siddhis such
as revivification. (John Woodroffe, Tantrar

aja Tantra: a short analysis, Madras, 1971,

p.9f.)

23. The significance of this process of desiccation becomes clear later in the text, when

offerings of water, etc., represent the opposite: A rite of renewal and satisfaction, and
a way to establish a partnership with a spiritual being. For example, through a magical
marriage, the yogi realizes, in an alchemical process, great benefits: “Then, after mak-
ing appropriate puja offerings on a full-moon night, if the yogi fires up his butter
lamps and repeats the given mantras all night long, in the morning the goddess (an
Apsaras) will reveal herself. At her arrival, when the yogi has made a gift (mchod yon)
of sandalwood-scented water, he should say pleasing things to her. Then, when the
s

adhaka says, “Be my wife!”, she will give him the materials for siddhi, mercury,

ras

ayana, etc. Through the latter obtained from her, the yogi will live a thousand years.”

(sDe dge version of the Bh

utadamara—see fn.5—p.506: de nas zla ba nya la ci ltar

’byor ba’i mchod pa bya nas mar gyi mar me rab tu spar na mtshan thog thag bzlas na
tho rangs Lha mo rang nyid ’ong ngo / ’ongs pa la tsandan gyi chu’i mchod yon byin
na dga’ tshig smra bar byed do / sgrub pa pos bdag gi chung ma gyis shig ces smras
na dngos grub kyi rdzad dang / dngul chu dang bcud kyis len la sogs pa ster ro / de’i
bcud kyis len gyis ni lo stong ‘tsho’o.)

The process of desiccation and re-moisturization plays both into broader Buddhist

cosmological processes and post-Vedic Hindu cosmogony. According to the Hariva

msa,

after the sun’s rays dry up all sentients at the end of this Kalpa, they will be reconsti-
tuted at the beginning of the next Kalpa. (Hariva

msa, tr. by M.N. Dutt, Calcutta, 1897,

p.39.) A related motif is that beings such as Bh

uta, Vetala, etc., can’t stand sunlight per

se, as that will also desiccate and destroy them. This is also specified for Yak

ras and

Vet

alas in the Saptavet

alakanamadharani, cf. fn.74 as well and comments here on the

Vet

alas as creatures of “the dark”.

24. Unfortunately, I cannot find dates for the Pandit Buddh

akaravarman/Sraddhakara-

varman or the Lo tsa ba Chos kyi shes rab, the translators.

25. B. Bhattacharya (op.cit., fn.5), p.95.
26. Cf. here Lorenzen (op.cit., fn.16), 21f., quoting the V

amanapurana and instances in

the Kathasarits

agara (op.cit., fn.7, Vol. I, p.133; Vol. II, pp.205ff.). Sometimes an

offering of human flesh, etc., into the mouth of the corpse suffices by itself to draw
forth a spirit which will grant a boon; in the Vin

asikhatantra, it’s a Preta that answers

the call of the yogi. (The Vin

asikhatantra, ed. & tr. by Teun Goudriaan, Delhi, 1985,

pp.75 and 118.)

27. Mahendra is the form found in one version; Padmamahendra in the other two; Pad-

mendra is also found.

28. dben pa’i gnas su rab song la recalls, and may be a play on, Rab Song Gnas, i.e.,

Pret

alaya, the name of a

samsana which occurs in the Hevajratantra, op.cit., fn.10,

Vol. II, pp.58f.

29. i.e., Dh

ptarartra, Virudhaka, Virupakra, and Vaisravana.

30. i.e., Yam

antaka, Aparajita, Hayagriva, Amptakundalin, Acala, Takkiraja, Niladanda,

Mah

abala, Urnisacakravartin, and Sumbharaja.

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31. They are: coarse or “fodder” barley (’bras kyi so ba), peas (mon sran gre’u), barley

(nas), sesame (til) and wheat (gro)—cf. PAD

IVf

, folio 80Vol.Compare this grouping

with those in Alex Wayman’s “Offering materials and their meanings” in his The Bud-
dhist Tantras, New York, 1973, pp.71-81.

32. The “Great Confession” is, I assume, a rite generally similar to the recitation in Deity

yoga, q.v., combined with related rites.

33. I.e., the yogi himself, the Vajrar

aja here; the Vajracarya (here, the Guhyavajracarya),

his human teacher; and, Heruka.

34. A perhaps identical rite for placing the threads is described in detail in the Krodhavijaya-

kalpaguhyasya

tika, folia 285a-287a, p.23 of the Peking edition.

IVd

35. Or, the corpse-carrier should get drunk. In either case, it would seem that there is a

need for the consciousness (vijñ

ana) of the carrier to be disturbed, perhaps to avoid

pollution by, or the interest of, the Vet

ala, who otherwise might be attracted to it.

Ritualized drunkenness or madness is also found in Tibetan communities in northern
Nepal; e.g., Geoff Childs informs me that, in a village he was acquainted with, a party
of young men who had helped in preparing the corpse then smeared their faces with
blood and ran amok through the village “crazed”, frightening the residents.

36. See Wayman (op.cit., fn.31), pp.82f, for some context for this brief description.
37. “Showing the way”, lam ston pa, is the subject of Chapter Six of this tantra. It is a set

of rites to show the deceased’s vijñ

ana the way from being reborn among transmigrat-

ing sentients to a rebirth in Sukh

avati.

38. Vajraki

ogara, or Mahavajrakiogara, is one of the twenty-one bshan pa or “butchers” who

specialize in consuming flesh, etc. (See, e.g., R. de Nebesky-Wojkowitz, Oracles and
Demons of Tibet, Graz, 1975, edition, pp.92f and 279.

brTul zhugs, or vrata, is a special vow with its own ascetic regimen which, when

fulfilled, brings the yogi into greater harmony with a spiritual being in meditation, and
thus renders him a v

ira/dpa’ bo, or “hero”. The yogi who is a “hero” cultivates espe-

cially the overcoming of aversion or repulsion, which is one goal of rites such as

sava-

s

adhana or sexual practices (it is becauses of this that both practices may be subsumed

under v

irasadhana). When a king controls a Vetala and indulges in other, similar rites,

this called “hero’s play”, v

irakrida, which allows a higher degree of siddhi. See Wayman,

op.cit., fn.31, pp.117f, especially with regard to the ritual dancing and singing, orna-
ments, etc., by which the yogi becomes Vajraki

ogara.

39. i.e, the Ging-pa, on which see fn.37 and the work of Nebesky-Wojkowitz there, pp.278-

280.

40. i.e., the chos sku, longs sku, sprul sku, mi ’gyur rdo rje’i sku, and mngon par byang

chub pa’i sku.

41. These organs are the intestines, the lungs, the spleen, the liver, and the kidneys.
42. As is well exampled here, bskang gso are rites of offerings given to satisfy, or replen-

ish, the spiritual contact between an i

rtadevata and a yogi.

43. Vet

ali/Ro langs ma, also known as Vetaladevi/Ro langs Lha mo, is a Yogini. Her ap-

pearance, and place in the Hevajra system, are given in Snellgrove’s edition and trans-
lation (op.cit., fn.10). In this text and the commentary, Vet

ali may also be short for

Vet

alimudra/Ro langs ma’i phyag rgya.

44. i.e., a place from which the dreadful call of a yogi, ha ha, emanates—as taught in the

text here—to frighten and impel the spirits.

45. This and similar phrases I have left in this selection refer to details of the ornamenta-

tion, etc., of the ma

ndala and other points on the construction and realization of the

ma

ndala for “Pretas in general” in other chapters of this work.

46. This process is explained to be “The middle stage of the Sole Hero yoga”—v

irayoga

—in the Hevajra yoga system. See the Yogaratnam

ala commentary studied by G. W.

Farrow and I. Menon (The concealed essence of the Hevajra Tantra, Delhi, 19-92,
pp.39f) and fn.38, above.

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43

47. These are the k

amadhatu, rupadhatu, and arupadhatu, the desire, form, and formless

realms. The best discussion of these and some other points raised here is W. Kloetzli,
Buddhist cosmology, Delhi, 1989 reprint, pp.26ff.

48. The second reading is probably to be preferred here.
49. Because of this, the Vet

ala can be considered a cint

amani, as has been said. The

Kathasarits

agara (op.cit., fn.7, Vol. II, pp.138f) also has the Vetala becoming a “boon-

giver” after having its tongue cut off.

The tongue, the heart, and the skull are the most significant parts of the corpse in

these narratives. Each is removed, in separate rites, and by that each, in different nar-
ratives, manifests great power. This is because each is the physical correlate of the
cakra located in the corresponding area of the subtle body.

In the nineteenth chapter of the Tantras

ara, Abhinavagupta outlines a savasadhana

wherein, at the end of the process, the corpse will shake when the pr

ana has, in stages,

risen through the heart, the throat, and the forehead (pr

anasamcarakramenahpdi kanthe

lal

ate ca ityevam savasariram kampate) on its way to Paramasiva. At the end of this

process of revival, the heart, tongue and skull will be long-time reservoirs of this “pr

anic”

power, which permeates them by life practice, and is then sealed in through mantra
repetiton and rites by the yogi.

The process begins with sealing pr

ana in the heart, because it is the reservoir of

pr

ana which, in turn, nourishes the heart from which it causes respiration, in the foetus

as well as the adult. In this way, the resuscitation of a corpse is, indeed—and has to
be—its “rebirth”. A good discussion of pr

ana may be found in the chapter of that title

in Rama Prasad’s Nature’s finer forces, Madras, 1933.

The tongue is a vaguer subject; I haven’t found much on it in commentaries to this

point. The tongue seems to stand for the power of the whole body, because, although
it is removed, it still contains the ability to transmute. As the means by which sacred
words and syllables are articulated, it would contain pr

anic power as actually con-

tained in, and projected from, the body of the deceased. This is augmented by the
yogi’s efforts and the ritual structure to become an effective instrument. As a token of
this power, it is referred to as the “navel of the lotus in bloom”, through which a yogi
can become a Vidy

adhara, in a

savasadhana in the Acalamahakrodharaja-kalpa (ed.

by J. Oshika, Tokyo, 1978), p.323: ... de nas ro de’i lus ’gul bar ’gyur te, ’jigs par mi
bya’o. de nas kha’i nan du padma kha phye ba’i lte ba mthon bar ’gyur te blans nas
bzun nas rig pa ’dsin par ’gyur shin lha’i gzugs kyis tshans pa’i ’jig rten du spyod do.

The symbolic power of the skull is more complex, resting on several levels of un-

derstanding. In addition to pr

anic power, there must be considered to be some residue

in the skull—at least in popular belief—of the vijñ

ana of the deceased.

Aside from vet

alasadhana and savasadhana, the skull is well-known to be impor-

tant in gcod rituals and funeral rites. The latter is well supported in anecdotal materials
from Indic traditions and those of their Tibetan and Tamang neighbors: J. Parry’s A
death in Banaras (op.cit., fn.4), pp.179 and 183: The dead rides his skull, from which
he—that is, his pr

ana—has escaped through a crack in the skull made during the

burning of the corpse (kap

alakriya). The same author: The skulls of those who haven’t

had a kap

alakriya are best, because the pranic power of the dead still resides in the

skull. Claes Corlin, in “The journey through the Bardo” (On the meaning of death,
Uppsala, 1988, p.73) notes that bones from the sinciput of the deceased are powdered
and used in tsha tsha, perhaps ensuring that merit will flow to the surviving family
through that offering of the bones of the deceased, who still somehow “resides” there.
One also may consult here B. Steinmann, “La ceremonie funeraire chez les Tamang de
l’est”, BEFEO.76.1987.229: Fragments of the skull are accorded special status after
funeral rites, as representing the continued presence of the dead, now an ancestor.

Another connection with Buddhist funeral rites is that, if the rnam shes/vijñ

ana

exits the body through the brahmarandhra, it will pass to a better realm. (Thupten

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Sangay, op.cit., fn.14, p.4.) The passage from heart to throat to skull is this travel
“upwards”. Thus, in keeping with descriptions here, the vet

alasadhana benefits both

the deceased and the yogi, and can be seen, as taught by the rNying ma, to be a special
part of a funeral ritual complex.

50. Reading g.yul kha, or g.yul ngo, for g.yul, metri causa.
51. i.e., p

adalepa- or paduka- siddhi; this “minor” siddhi is often associated with

vet

alasiddhi, as in the sixth chapter of the Kulacudamanitantra, op.cit., fn. 21, and is

sometimes even confused with it (Goudriaan & Gupta, op.cit., fn.5, p.93). The former
term illustrates that this siddhi may also be acquired by application of a magic salve to
the foot; again, see the Kathasarits

agara, op.cit., fn.7, Vol. II, p.594.

52. I venture an interpretation of this phrase, which I find obscure. Vet

ala are well known

for their large size and thin waists (d

irghadeha; kpsodara, in the Manassolasa, Book

Three, verse 811), as well as for the long reach (vet

alahbahuvigrahah) of their deformed

(vik

pta) limbs (Tantrarajatantra, op.cit., fn.13, Chap.17, verse 32). The Vetala seems,

then, to provide the yogi with the same reach he enjoys, at least for some time.

53. The French translation, by G.A. La Comme, was published in Paris in 1865 as Le

Bouddisme, ses dogmas, son histoire et sa litterature; the section on vet

alasadhana is

on pages 195-6. Anton Schiefner helped Vasil’ev with the Tibetan terms in his work,
but the precis of the text itself is from the canonical Chinese version of the Sub

ahu-

parp

pcchatantra, which explains some differences in the narratives.

54. Ro langs sgrub pa po’i mtshan nyid; Ro langs slang ba’i mtshan nyid; Ro langs ’grub

pa’i gnas bstan pa; Ro langs pa’i dngos grub pa’i dkyil ‘khor rnams kha bstan pa; ro’i
lus byi dor bya ba; mchod pa rnams lnga’i yo byad kyi cho ga; gsang sngags bzlas
brjod bya ba’i cho ga; Ro langs pa na bgegs byung bar rab tu zhi bar bya ba.

55. The club (be con/danda) is the sign (mudr

a) of Yama, and the sword (ral gri / khadga)

that of Nair

ptya; by this pose any bgegs/Vighna are kept away from the corpse (PAD

IVf

,

79v; 90r). That it is held by a friend of the yogi is given in PAD, 90r.

56. Here, the samaya dam tshig is a diagram of mantras—very much like a yantra—which

actually encapsules spiritual beings. For example, in the Bh

utadamaratantra (sDe dge

ed., p.479), the source of siddhis for all rites involving mudras and dh

aranis for worldly

powers resides in the samaya of

Siva, i.e., Mahadeva.

57. It is only with such “great faith” that siddhi will be attained. This state is only possible

after purification of the yogi’s “sins” (sdig pa/p

apa). For a discussion of this stage, see

PIN

IVf

, 48v and PAD, 88v.

58. PAD

IVf

, 90v, says that the sha za (Pi

saca) are all creatures who have control over the

samsana. Again, it is interesting that the Bhuta are listed separately here, although
Pi

saca would thus presumably include Preta and Vetala, or they would be in some way

interchangeable.

59. Again, the role of the good friend is to safeguard the yogi from Vighna (PAD

IVf

, 90r).

60. According to PAD

IVf

, 90r, the mantra of gTsug tor rgyal po is used because of its great,

special power (mthu) and blessing (rlabs). The Vighna retire because they cannot stand
to be close to the majesty (gzi brjid) of that spell. Once again, we see the light/darkness
opposition; the spell is effective because it literally “glows” with power.

61. This is probably a reference to the ability to find Indra’s cave, an important siddhi in

the Sub

ahuparippcchatantra.

62. Wylie, “Ro-langs: The Tibetan zombie”, History of religions.4.1964.69-80; Berglie,

“When the corpses rise: Some Tibetan Ro langs stories”, Indologica taurinensia. 10.1982.
pp.37-44.

63. Not only are well-known, eighth-century figures such as Padmasambhava and Vairocana

renowned for attaining vet

alasiddhi, but even minor figures, such as ’Bre rGyal ba’i

blo gros are credited with it—of course, having learned the magic (rdzu ’phrul) from
Padma himself. (In a recent rNying ma history, Thub bstan ’od gsal bstan pa’i nyi ma,

OF

CORPSES

AND

GOLD

45

bsTan pa’i snying po gsang chen snga’ ’gyur nges don zab mo’i chos kyi byung ba ...,
Vol. I, Beijing, 1992, p.270.)

64. See S. Karmay, “The ordinance of Lha Bla-ma Ye-shes-’od”, in Tibetan Studies in Honor

of Hugh Richardson, Warminster, 1980, p.154 and 156.

Actually, the term Ye shes ’od uses is bam sgrub, a term first found in early-Phyi dar

Bon funeral texts rediscovered by gShen chen Klu dga’, who, living 996-1035, was a
near-contemporary of the king.

I have examined two bam sgrub texts from this cycle. While generally similar, there

are also significant differences in detail from Chos pa ro sgrub materials, probably
making them another example of the unique developments of Buddhism in the far
north-west of India and Afghanistan and eastern Iran which resulted in Bon. (This is in
exception to Sog Zlog pa’s refutation of Ye shes ’od’s charges, wherein he maintains
that bam sgrub and ro sgrub rites are identical.)

In any case, the important point here is that neither betrays any obvious evidence of

“native” Tibetan ideas about the revivification of a corpse.

65. Also sketched in Berglie, pp.37f. Note in this narrative that the Tirthika yogi warns

that, if the tongue of the Vet

ala is not taken in three tries, the Vetala will first eat the yogi

and his helper, and then lay waste to the whole land. This is consistent with the “bad
yogi, bad Vet

ala” theme we see consistently in these materials; the Vetala becomes

vengeful because the yogi is not heroic, so he actually makes that yogi his de facto flesh
offering. However, not being controlled then by a powerful yogi, and with no contract
to control his behavior, he goes on a rampage.

66. Ro langs can be killed in various ways and with various instruments, e.g., handmade

vajras; decapitation; blows from book covers or robe flaps; rigs lnga crowns, etc.
These are most often, if not always, accompanied by an attack (pha

t) mantra, etc. All

these are found in Wylie, Berglie, and Richmond (on the latter, see the following foot-
note).

67. I refer here to the unpublished, draft version of an article kindly supplied to me by

Keith Richmond of Windsor, Australia, entitled, “Reluctant Rolangs of Dolpo”. The
author collected Ro langs stories from Bon pos and those who know Bon traditions.
The data collected by him is very interesting, and I hope that it will appear soon. Some
of these materials can be traced to Indian beliefs and practices concerning the dead, as
presented here. Along with the materials presented by Wylie and Berglie, these are, not
unexpectedly, ultimately uninformative about the origin of the Ro langs and its rela-
tionship with the Vet

ala.

I was also kindly supplied with information gathered incidentally by Geoff Childs
while in Nepal, among the Shar pa and other peoples. Quite widespread was the belief
in the fatal breath of a Ro langs, and of doorways kept low to prevent them from
entering.

68. i.e., they are really manifestations of the power of the Buddha. The cho ’phrul gsum

are miracles of the body, speech, and mind of enlightened beings.

69. This coupling of Lha, ’Dre, and Ro langs is reminiscent of a passage in the Lha ’dre

bka’ thang, the first book of the bKa’ thang sde lnga, which also makes reference to
the “Seven Vet

ala” and their afflictions, as per the Saptavet

alakanamadharani: Pad

’byung khyer dwogs lha ’dres bdag bzung nas / Ro langs bdun pas las kyi pho nya
’gyed / rlung ’tshub rdzu ’phrul mang po ’gyed la brtson ... (Bkah-than-sde-lna: Dgah-
ldan-phun-tshogs-glin edition, New Delhi, 1982, column 40).

70. Reading sbor for sber, which is not entirely satisfactory.
71. Of course, the very popularity of such rites in India probably called this text into exist-

ence; thus, we gave *

sava uttirthate, embodied in the text above, as an equivalent.

Corresponding to this is an explanation of the elements of the phrase in the anonymous
Krodhavijayakalpaguhya commentary

IVd

connecting it to the “risen corpse” concept

46

THE

TIBET

JOURNAL

of the Tibetan Ro langs, although through the entrance of a “deity”: Ro langs shes bya
ba’i sgra ni lha nyid ro’i nang du gshegs pa la Ro langs par gyur bas na / Ro langs
shes bya’o / (Peking ed., column 311v). Thus, this description of the Vet

ala has been

known for some long time in Buddhist exegesis in Tibet, and the description of the
Vet

ala doesn’t differ from that of the Ro langs.

72. Note that the list of gDon containing the Ro langs on p.311 of Oracles and Demons of

Tibet (op.cit., fn.38) is at least half made up of spiritual beings of Indic origin, includ-
ing Preta, R

akrasa, Yakra, Pisaca, and Kumbhanda. It is very doubtful that this scho-

lastic enumeration, by the recent dGe lugs pa, Klong rdol bla ma, would refer to the
“Tibetan” Ro langs as opposed to the “Indic” Vet

ala. Much work remains to distin-

guish “native” Tibetan spiritual beings from imports—an important effort in the study
of the history of religions. Many old spiritual beings were, over time, merged or equated
with Indic spiritual beings (e.g., gDon with Graha) for purposes of harmonizing Tantric
ritual texts, and one result of this was such scholastic, aggregational lists as that above.

73. Berglie, p.41, and Wylie, 76; cf. also Thupten Sangay (op.cit., fn.14), p.12, who notes

that, in the old days, following the custom of leaving the dead in a “house of the corpse”
for many days, when a Ro langs emerged from it, the populace as a whole would flee
the area: snga mo phung po khang pa’i nang nyin mang po ’jog srol ltar bzhag pas
skabs re Ro langs byung ste yul grong stong pa red ces.

74. In addition to the solar reference (meant both micro- and macro-cosmically) to the

“shining vajras” of Vajradhara, above, we have the following in the Saptavet

alaka-

n

amadharani (sDe dge ed., p.110; cf. Peking ed., Vol.7, p.297\): “Oh, Ananda! When

the sun rises, there is one *Mahavet

ala, called Harm-Doing, who, pursued by the sun’s

rays in the autumn season, wherever he has been touched by any such rays—caught by
the net of those rays—he will become ill and will also be cut off \(i.e., destroyed\).”
(Kun dga’ bo nyi ma’i ’char ba’i tshe / ro langs chen po gnod byed ces bya ba zhig yod
de / de ston gyi dus kyi tshe nyi ma’i ’od zer gyis rjes su zhugs nas/ gang ’od zer de dag
gis gang la reg pa ’od zer gyi dra bas reg nas rims su ’gyur te de yang gcad do.)
The implication here is that gNod byed, an especially nasty, powerful Vet

ala—perhaps

even more powerful that the seven above—nonetheless will also succumb to the sun.
\(The “sun” here meaning both the physical sun and the Buddha’s dh

aranis, which

“shine” when invoked. This is another example of light in Buddhism battling and remov-
ing chaos and, thus, restoring order and cosmos.)

75. This plays on a universal theme that spirits—even those of non-human origin—are

essentially needy for, or envious of, what most human beings have: A healthy, function-
ing body. (This theme is eventually compromised, perhaps for simply ghoulish rea-
sons; in the biography of gTsang smyon He ru ka there are headless and limbless Ro
langs, and even Ro langs with half of their bodies missing! See The life of the Saint of
gTsan by rGod tshang pa sNa tshogs rang grol (ca.1503-1547), New Delhi, 1969, p.48.)

That Vet

ala need or wish a corpse free of blemishes or injury, and then deform it

when they inhabit it, represents the futility of the non-human invading the human
world; the bent and elongated limbs, etc., and the facial expression of rictus Tibetans
often describe Ro langs as having are noticed immediately, of course.

76. C. Ramble, “Status and death: Mortuary rites and attitudes to the body in a Tibetan

village”, Kailash.9.1982.333-359; cf. p.355 esp.; C. Corlin, op.cit., fn.49, p.64.

77. In normative Buddhist cosmogologies, most lower spiritual beings are located under

the earth. All such beings are of a morally ambiguous nature. (See the overviews of
Akira Sadakata, Buddhist cosmology, Tokyo, 1997, and B.C. Law, The Buddhist con-
ception of spirits, op.cit.).