Cracow Indological Studies

vol. XI (2009)

Renata Czekalska

(Jagiellonian University, Krakow)

Images of India’s Muslim past in modern Hindi

poetry – five poems on three cities

by Kunwar Narain

vāpas lauÂā to dekhā

humāyūÓ ke makbare yā śāyad Kutub ke parisar meÓ khaáī

amīr Lusro kī ek nayī pahelī

joá rahī thī

kalāoÓ kī vaÒśāvalī meÓ ek aur kaáī

1

1.

Five lyrical works – poetic images of India’s Muslim past – written
by Kunwar Narain are to be the subject of my observations. Towards
Delhi [Dillī kī taraf], The epoch of today [Āj kā zamānā], Passages
(Fatehpur Sikri) [Rāste (Fatehpur Sīkrī)], Soulless body (Fatehpur
Sikri) [Anātmā deh (Fatehpur Sīkrī)], and Lucknow [Lakhnaū], be-

1

“When I returned I saw, / standing in Humayun’s tomb or maybe the

Qutab’s precinct, / a new riddle of Amir Khusro / connecting / to the chronicle of
the arts, another link”. KuÓvar NārāyaÐ, µKutub kā parisar (The Qutab’s pre-
cinct), [in:] In dinoÓ, Rājkamal Prakāśan, Nayī Dillī 2002.

All English translations of titles of poems as well as of all the extracts from

Kunwar Narain’s poems quoted in this article, are by Apurva Narain. See:
Kunwar Narain, No Other World. Selected Poems, translated by Apurva Narain,
New Delhi 2008 (henceforward NOW).

R

ENATA

C

ZEKALSKA

124

long to one poetry collection titled In front of us [Apne sāmne], pub-
lished in 1979

2

.

The five works form a kind of historical landscape, in which the

components such as image, thought and word evoke the feelings of
sympathy and empathy. As for their content – these poetic reflections
call to mind the memories of probably the most turbulent times in the
history of India – the years of Muslim invasion and domination. They
refer to three Indian cities which were of great importance during the
times of Muslim rule in India.

However, before moving to some more detailed remarks about

the poems, I believe it necessary to make a digression and recall a few
historical facts.

2.

In the early 11

th

century Muslim invaders arrived in India’s northwest

and by 1290 nearly all of India was under the domination of Muslim
rulers. In the early 16

th

century the Mughals established an empire

that stretched from the Northwest Frontier to Bengal and down to the
Deccan (present-day Andhra Pradesh). The Mughal dynasty in India
was founded by Babur, who because of Timur’s capture of Delhi in
1398, believed that he had an inherited claim upon northern India. His
first serious expedition was launched in October 1525. Some forty
years later it became evident that Babur’s descendants were a new
and established dynasty in northern India. The Persians referred to
this dynasty as muġul, meaning ‘Mongol’ therefore they became
known as the Mughal emperors of India. By the early 16

th

century the

Muslim sultans of Delhi (an Afghan dynasty known as Lodi) were
much weakened by threats from rebel Muslim principalities and from
a Hindu coalition of Rajput rulers. The decisive battle against Ibra-
him, the Lodi sultan, came on the plain of Panipat in April 1526.
Babur was heavily outnumbered, but his tactics secured his victory,

2

Rājkamal Prakāśan, Nayī Dillī.

I

MAGES OF

I

NDIA

’

S

M

USLIM PAST IN MODERN

H

INDI POETRY

…

125

which brought him the cities of Delhi and Agra. Babur’s control was
almost complete when he died in 1530, after just three years in India.
His son Humayun tried to keep hold on the family’s new possessions.
His position in India was almost lost when in 1543 he went to Afg-
hanistan to fight Sher Shah. Not until twelve years later, when civil
war within India broke out, Humayun had a chance to return with
almost no opposition. The victory at Sirhind in 1555, was enough to
recoup the throne. But six months later Humayun died by an acci-
dental fall down a stone staircase. His son Akbar was thirteen years
old while inheriting the throne in 1556. Against all predictions, he
established the mighty Mughal empire. In the early years of Akbar’s
reign, his inheritance was held together by an able chief minister,
Bairam Khan. But from 1561 the 19-year-old emperor began to rule
by himself. By marrying in 1562 a Rajput princess, daughter of the
raja of Amber, he demonstrated that his intentions were to rule the
two religious communities of India, Muslim and Hindu, in a new way
– by consensus and cooperation, rather than alienation of the Hindu
majority. In 1563 he abolished a tax levied on pilgrims to Hindu
shrines. In 1564 he put an end to the jizya, or annual tax on unbe-
lievers which, according to the Qur

ð

ā

n, should be levied in return for

Muslim protection. At the same time Akbar consequently extended
the boundaries of the territory which he had inherited. In 1605 he was
succeeded by his eldest and only surviving son, Jahangir. In spite of
his inclination to alcohol and opium, the empire was now stable
enough for him to preside over it for twenty-two years without much
danger of upheaval. During the reigns of the next two emperors, Shah
Jahan and his son Aurangzeb, the policy of religious toleration in-
troduced by Akbar was gradually abandoned. In 1632 Shah Jahan
brought back a stricter way of interpretation of Islam by issuing an
order that all recently built Hindu temples should be destroyed. This
decision, later followed by Aurangzeb’s determination to impose
strict Islamic rule on India, nullified most of Akbar’s achievements.
Moreover, Aurangzeb was obsessed with extending Mughal rule into
South India. When he died in 1707, he left the empire larger but

R

ENATA

C

ZEKALSKA

126

weaker than he had found it. Mughal emperors outwardly continued
to rule for more than a century, but their prestige was low. As a result
the empire fell into many small principalities whose existence greatly
helped the British in gaining control over India, by playing rival
neighbours off against each other. The empire lasted until 1858, when
it was finally eliminated by the British.

3.

This is, in brief, the historical setting of the five poems by Kunwar
Narain, selected as the basis of this article from among his works,
which contain so-called Muslim references – or rather reminiscences
of Indian Muslim past.

After these remarks, which were to organise the background and

the context, let us look at these poems as we were looking at the
artistic depiction of the soul of the poet, while he wanders the streets
of the past and the present simultaneously. We can not only observe
his reaction to history, seen through separate, individual images of
places, people and happenings, but also perceive his reflections in-
duced by remembering this turbulent but also interesting period of
India’s complex past.

4.

Out of the selected poems, the first two relate to Delhi, the Indian
capital city, which has a long history, including its being the capital of
several empires. Its earliest architectural relics date back to the
Maurya Period (c. 300 BC). Since then the site has been a place of
continuous settlement, and a lot of battles were fought to either keep
or gain the rule over the city.

Towards Delhi is a poetic reflection on the city’s troubled past.

In the opening line the author pictures the common fate of all soldiers
– always difficult to predict, no matter how brilliant the strategy.

I

MAGES OF

I

NDIA

’

S

M

USLIM PAST IN MODERN

H

INDI POETRY

…

127

But the reference to a collective action is very brief. Already in

the second verse appears an anonymous human being, an ordinary
man, who has to independently face his own fears and doubts, search
alone for answers to the questions about the limits of responsibility
for one’s own actions as well as about the responsibility of an indi-
vidual for the deeds of the human race. He also has to search alone for
answers to the question about the meaning of life and death. Por-
traying in this way the solitude of a man in his search for his own
place in history as well as in the universe, is one of the most charac-
teristic features of Kunwar Narain’s poetry. In this particular poem a
reader comes across the most concise treatment of these fundamental
existential issues, therefore – I believe – it needs to be quoted in full:

jidhar ghuásavāroÓ kā ruL ho
usī or ghisaÂkar jāte hūe
maiÓne use kaī bār pahle bhī dekhā hai.

donoÓ hāth baÓdhe, majbūrī meÓ, phir ek bār
kaun thā vah? kah nahīÓ saktā
kyoÑki keval do baÓdhe hāth hī
dillī pahuÓce the.

3

The second poem related thematically to Delhi, The epoch of today, is
of a different nature. The poet portrays the city in which he presently
lives, but where he is also constantly accompanied by images of the
past. In the first stanza comes the reference to MulāmoÓ aur sultānoÓ
kā zamānā, or “the epoch of slaves and sultans”, when around 1206
Delhi became the capital of the Delhi Sultanate under the Slave Dy-
nasty. The first sultan of Delhi, Qutb ud-din Aybak, was a former
slave who rose through the ranks to become a general, a governor and

3

“Whichever way the cavalcade turned / I have seen him go grovelling

along / the same course many times before. / / Both hands tied, helpless once
again / who was he? I cannot say / for only two tied hands / had reached Delhi”
(NOW, p. 57).

R

ENATA

C

ZEKALSKA

128

then sultan of Delhi. Qutb ud-din started the construction of the Qutb
Minar

4

, a recognisable symbol of the city.

The second stanza brings images from the remnants of the

greatness of the Muslim past and the most crowded – even nowadays
– part of the city:

aj cāndnī cauk meÓ baáī bhīá hai
lāl Kile se jāmā masjid tak

5

The place is presently referred to as Old Delhi, but chronologically
speaking it was the seventh subsequent ancient city, known in history
as Shahjahanabad – the walled city built by Shah Jahan between 1638
and 1649, and designed by his daughter, Jahanara – the capital of the
Mughal Empire during Shah Jahan’s reign. It contains a number of
significant architectural features, including the three mentioned in the
discussed poem: the Lal Qila (or Red Fort), the Jama Masjid and the
Chandni Chowk.

The Red Fort was originally referred to as Qil

c

a-e mubārak (the

blessed fort), because it was the residence of the royal family. Due to
its architectural features, the Red Fort represents the pinnacle of
Mughal creativity. But since it was here on 15 August 1947 that
Jawaharlal Nehru unveiled the national flag, it is also a symbol of
independent India. Jama Masjid (the “congregation mosque”, or the
mosque where jum

c

a – the weekly Friday noon congregation prayers

take place) is the common name of the Masjid-i Jahān-Numā (the
“mosque – reflection of the World”). The courtyard of the mosque
can hold up to twenty-five thousand worshipers. And, finally, the
Chandni Chowk (originally meaning the moonlight square or market)
is the major street in the walled city of Old Delhi. Crowded with

4

To this structure Kunwar Narain dedicated the whole poem µKutub kā

parisar (The Qutab’s precinct), a concluding fragment of which became a motto
to this article.

5

“There is a huge din at Chandni Chowk / from the Red Fort to the Jama

Masjid” (NOW, p. 57).

I

MAGES OF

I

NDIA

’

S

M

USLIM PAST IN MODERN

H

INDI POETRY

…

129

shoppers and sellers, but also with the processions of the faithful (and
at present also of tourists) going to and returning from the Jama
Masjid.

The crowdedness of the place and the greatness of the monu-

mental structures remembered in the second stanza is concluded by a
puzzling action described below:

intazām kiyā jā rahā hai ki log khaáe hoÓ ek pāÓv par korniś ke lie

6

In antiquity, to ‘stand on one’s foot’ was a figure of speech. Horace in
his Satires ironically referred to Lucilius’s productivity: “In an hour
he used to dictate two hundred verses (…) while standing on one
foot”

7

. But in this poem, apart from an obvious reference to people

tightly squashed in a crowd, the image evokes an association of
basically a two-fold, or resting on two pillars, Hindu-Muslim struc-
ture of Indian civilisation. Considering one without the other could be
compared to a person standing on just one leg.

And in the third stanza an image of nikālī huī ek joáā purānī

āÓ

kheÓ, or “a pair of ancient eyes”, belonging to an unknown silent

observer, brings about the appearance of an individual entangled in
history, so typical for Kunwar Narain’s poems. The silent observation
does not mean a passive attitude, it rather means experience. It makes
the observer equal with those, who are being watched and creates a
distant view on the changeability of human fate.

6

“arrangements are being made that the people may stand on one foot for

the salute” (NOW, p. 57).

7

in hora saepe ducentos (…), versus dictabat stans pede in uno (1.4.9-

-10), see: S. J. Harrison, Generic enrichment in Vergil and Horace, New York
2007, p. 78.

R

ENATA

C

ZEKALSKA

130

5.

The next diptych of poems makes an elaborate reference to another
landmark of India’s Muslim past – Fatehpur Sikri.

Nowadays a city in Agra district in the state of Uttar Pradesh,

historically it was constructed by Akbar in 1570 and served as the
empire’s capital from 1571 until 1585, when it was abandoned. The
reasons why the capital was moved here from Agra remain unknown.
A legend links the origins of the city with the Sufi saint, Salim
Chishti, who lived as a recluse in the small town of Sikri, near Agra.
When two sons of Akbar died, Salim predicted that the emperor
would have another son, and indeed, the future emperor Jahangir, was
born in 1569, actually in Sikri. The following year, Akbar, decided to
build a palace and royal city in Sikri, to honour his pīr. As for the
reasons of abandoning the city and moving the capital to Lahore –
they remain even more obscure. There are some speculations that
either the sources of water dried up or that Akbar needed to be closer
to invading Persian and Afghan armies.

The left wing of the Fatehpur Sikri diptych, titled Passages, is a

depiction of a city apparently deserted in great haste. A question
comes in the opening of the poem:

ve log kahāÓ jāne kī jaldī meÓ the
jo apnā sāmān bīc rāstoÓ meÓ rakhkar bhūl gaye haiÓ?

8

But here, like in history, the question remains unanswered.

The three concluding lines of this poem are yet another charac-

teristic example of one of the distinguishing features of Kunwar
Narain’s writing – his subtle sense of humour, based mainly on an
unprecedented ability to observe as well as an exceptional acuteness
of vision:

8

“Where were those people in a hurry to go – / who left their belongings in

the middle of the road and forgot?” (NOW, p. 45).

I

MAGES OF

I

NDIA

’

S

M

USLIM PAST IN MODERN

H

INDI POETRY

…

131

āś

cary, kī un betāb zindagiyoÓ meÓ

sabr kī guñjāiś thī!…
aur aisā sabr ki ab ye patthar bhī ūb rahe haiÓ.

9

Soulless body, the right wing of the diptych, is an example of a

three-dimensional landscape, structured with words. The picture
captures an instant, seemingly without a past and beyond time. Nev-
ertheless, the historical association is brought about not only by the
direct reference to a certain historic place. Perception of the poem
happens within a system of references, which functions differently
for each reader. In other words, the text serves as a means of con-
veying an image moulded in imagination:

muÓÀeroÓ ke kandhe hilte haiÓ,
bharokhe bhāÓkte haiÓ,
divāreÓ suntī haiÓ,
mehrābeÓ jamuhāī letī,
(…)

10

In the first verse of the concluding stanza of this mysterious, poetic
landscape a pond comes into sight (tālāb ke sevār-ban meÓ jal kī
parchāiyāÓ cancal haiÓ

11

). Perhaps it could be the Anup Talab

(“pond with no comparison”), with an island in the middle, on which
the legendary musician Tansen is said to have performed?

But the most important, constructive element of this poem is

time. Time which is not chronological but potential, only possible in
the poet’s imagination. Time which can take any form. Also a shape
of a soulless beauty, amazingly desirable, resting on the carpet of
greenery:

9

“Amazing, that in those impatient lives / there was room for patience! / /

And such patience that / even these stones are bored now” (NOW, p. 45).

10

“The shoulders of ramparts tremble, / Lattice windows stare, / Walls

listen, / Arches yawn, / (…)” (NOW, p. 47).

11

“Shadows of water swirl about in the pond’s crusted grass” (NOW, p. 47).

R

ENATA

C

ZEKALSKA

132

harī kāī ke Kālīn par ek anātmā deh leÂī hai
aur mīnāreÓ cāhtī haiÓ
ki luáhakkar uske urojoÓ ko cūm leÓ.

12

6.

Lucknow, placed here as the last part of the “urban quintet” found in
Apne sāmne, is a deeply biographical poem (Kunwar Narain was
educated in Lucknow and lived there for a significant part of his adult
life), with some strong historical references which come as a natural
consequence of the city’s particular character.

Located in what was historically known as the Awadh region, its

capital – the city of Lucknow – has always been a multicultural place.
For long years it was a centre for education and Muslim culture.
Courtly manners, beautiful gardens, poetry, music, and fine cuisine
patronized by the navāb-s

13

– are well known, not only amongst

Indians. Lucknow is popularly called the “The City of Nawabs”. It is
also known as the “The Constantinople of India”.

But the city portrayed in the poem seems to have lost some of its

old splendour and the observer seems to notice the changes that time
has caused as well as some idiosyncrasies of its former dwellers:

adhleÂe
adhmare būáhe-sā khāÓstā huā lakhnaū.
(…)

kisī murdā śānośaukat kī Kabr-sā
(…)
kamān-kamar navāb ke jhuke hue

ś

arīf ādāb-sā lakhnaū,

12

“a soulless body is lying on the carpet of green moss / and the minarets

wish / that they tumble down and kiss its breasts” (NOW, p. 47).

13

Navāb – ‘great, wealthy, of ground fortune’; a title adopted by the rulers

of Awadh (during the time when it was an independent state).

I

MAGES OF

I

NDIA

’

S

M

USLIM PAST IN MODERN

H

INDI POETRY

…

133

(…)
kisī śauKīn aur hāy kisī beniyāz kā lakhnaū

14

The poem creates a certain kind of lyrical situation, in which some
historically distant places, events and people meet together in a poem,
in the moment of creation, in the moment of reading:

bārīK malmal par kaáhī huī bārīKiyoÓ kī tarah
is śahar kī kamzor nafāsat,
navābī zamāne kī zanānī adāoÓ meÓ
kisī mancale ko rijhāne ke lie
KavvāliyāÓ gātī huī nazākat

15

(…)

Such a method of employing time close ups – practiced, among
others, by T. S. Eliot – is a form of reflective analysis, carried out with
the means of expression particular for lyrical poetry.

Travelling in time, the reader is taken through the city land-

marks, kāf ī-hāus, hazratgañj, amīnābād aur cauk

16

, each meta-

phorically portrayed in a separate part of the poem. Each constituting
different character and atmosphere, the distinctive features of
Lucknow’s culture and life. The associations call to mind an entire
life-style, characterised on the one hand by refined cuisine, love for
music, poetry and dance, and on the other – by leisureliness, deca-
dence and extravagance:

14

“half-sprawled / half-stalled, coughing, old this Lucknow / (…) / / Like a

tomb of dead magnificence, / (…) / Lucknow, like a hunched nawab, bowed, /
like courtesies and greetings bestowed, / (…) / the Lucknow of connoisseurs and
alas of bores” (NOW, p. 53, 55).

15

“amidst ruins, the lament of some princess echoed, / like delicacies em-

broidered on a delicate dress, / the city’s frail finesse, / like quawali-singing
poise / to entice some fickle head” (NOW, p. 55).

16

“the Coffee house, Hazratganj, Ameenabad and Chowk” (NOW, p. 55).

R

ENATA

C

ZEKALSKA

134

nayī śāme-avadh –
das sekenÀ meÓ samjhāne-samajhnevālī kisī bāt ko
kaáīb do ghaÐÂe kī bahas ke bād samjhā-samjhāyā

(…)
bāzār –
jahāÓ zarūrtoÓ kā dam ghuÂtā hai,
(…)
bhāgābhāg –
jiskī vajah nahīÓ,
mehaz ek (…) ānā-jānā

17

Creating such an experience, living through it, and allowing the
reader to partake in this life, is possible only in language. For it is the
language which is the keeper of identity and memory of every nation,
as well as of every human being. In this case it comes as a perfect
means for the poet to express his sentiments and emotions as well as
his sober way of perceiving reality, depicted in the concluding
statement:

yahī hai Kiblā
hamārā aur āpkā lakhnaū.

18

7.

The five poems, taken out of the same volume, have one inspiration,
connected with the biography of the poet, with his deep spiritual
relationship with the way of life of the Indian Muslim community.
For decades Kunwar Narain lived in a city believed to be the capital
of Indian Muslim culture and the centre of the Urdu language.

17

“Another Awadh twilight – / took two hours to take in and spell out / a

trifle needing ten seconds to sort out / / (…) / Bazaars – / where wants run out of
breath fast / (…) / hustle and bustle – / with no cause or aim, / just a come and go
(…)” (NOW, p. 53).

18

“This is Lucknow, Sir, / ours and yours” (NOW, p. 53).

I

MAGES OF

I

NDIA

’

S

M

USLIM PAST IN MODERN

H

INDI POETRY

…

135

Growing up and living in a mixed Hindu-Muslim community

resulted in a biographical consequence, that not only are the refer-
ences to both the traditions frequent in this poetry, but also that the
poet continues literary traditions of both the languages, Hindi and
Urdu, attaining a distinguishing and unique artistic syncretism.

Kunwar Narain’s poems not only depict an incredibly vast

panorama of historical places and events. They also prove that the
poet boldly undertakes the difficult issue of the encounter of two
great cultures: Hindu and Muslim, and that in his poems history,
tradition and the present are inseparable.