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Lecture 9
Clause structure

A sentence is a construction consisting of one or more clauses.
A clause typically consists of the following elements:
subject

+

syntactic predicate

NP

+

VP [verb (+ complement/adjunct)]

The students are happy.
The students passed the exam.

Subject
A subject is typically a noun phrase that realizes a thematic role and performs the following
grammatical functions:
a) determines agreement with the verb:
I like Bill.
He likes Bill.
He likes his brothers.

b) inverts with operators in yes-no questions:
She is going abroad.
Is she going abroad?

c) personal pronouns are in nominative case:
I saw him yesterday.
He saw me yesterday.

d) determines the pronoun in tag questions:
John is leaving, isn't he ?
They are leaving, aren't they ?

A typical subject is an NP. There are also clausal subjects:
[That he did it] is obvious.

In very general terms, a subject often (but not always!) refers to the performer of an action and
the topic of a sentence:

Poland defeated England.
Poznań is beautiful in the spring.
She knows English grammar well.
England was defeated by Poland.
Something is wrong with this car.
It’s time we left.

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Complements and adjuncts in clause structure (Huddleston and Pullum 2005)
A complement is an element that is licensed / selected by a particular class of verb. Adjuncts are
not licensed.
The students saw [their professor] [this morning].
*The students arrived [their professor].
The students arrived [this morning].
Complements tend to be obligatory, whereas adjuncts are always optional.
She ate the chocolate.
She ate.
*She arrived / disappeared the chocolate.

An object is a noun phrase that typically has the following properties:

•

is obligatory with many verbs

•

immediately follows the verb

•

realizes a thematic role assigned by the verb that precedes it (i.e. refers to a participant)

•

personal pronouns are in accusative case

•

occurs as the subject of a corresponding passive sentence

Bill kissed [Mary].

Bill gave Mary (indirect object) a book (direct object).
She told me (indirect object) the truth (direct object).
An indirect object:

•

usually has the benefactive / recipient thematic role

•

can often occur as the complement of to or for in a corresponding sentence

Bill gave a book to Mary

•

is more usual as the subject of a passive sentence than a direct object:

a) Mary was given a book.
b) A book was given Mary.

Predicative complements: a predicative complement is a phrase associated with the semantic
function of predicating, i.e. a phrase which functions as a semantic predicate. It ascribes a
property to a subject:
Bill is [ very happy].
John seemed [a nice guy].
He was [a good teacher]. – predicative complement
He found [a good teacher]. – object

Subjective v objective predicative complements

She seems intelligent.
I consider her intelligent.

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Types of main verbs
1. Intransitive verbs: do not license a complement:
The plane took off.
She is sleeping.
He has arrived.
The structure of the clause: S + V
2. Transitive verbs: license a complement
a) monotransitive verbs – license one object:
She kissed him.
Structure of the clause: S + V + O

d

b) ditransitive verbs – license two objects
She gave him a book.
She showed him a picture.
Structure of the clause: S + V + O

i

+ O

d

c) complex-transitive verbs: license an object and a predicative complement
She made him happy.
They elected him President.
Structure of the clause: S + V + O

d

+ PC

3. Linking verbs: license a predicative complement
Bill is a doctor.
Bill seems / appears happy.
She became happy.

Structure of the clause: S + V + PC

Multi-word verbs (Quirk et al. 1985)
Phrasal verb: She called up her friends.
Prepositional verb: She called on her friends.
1a. She called her friends up.
1b. *She called her friends on.
2a. *the friends up whom she called
2b. the friends on whom she called
3a. *Up whom did she call?
3b. On whom did she call?
4a. *She called angrily up her friends.

4b. She called angrily on her friends.

Prepositional verb: She called on her friends
Free combination with PP: She slept under the table.
1a. *She called her friends on.
1b. *She slept the table under.
2a. the friends on whom she call

2b. the table under which she slept
3a. On whom did she call?
3b. Under what did she sleep?
4a. Her friends were called on.

4b.*The bed was slept under.

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5a. Who did she call?
5b. Where did she sleep?
6a. Selection of the preposition

6b. No selection of the preposition

Phrasal verb: bring up (raise)
Free combination with adverbial particle: bring up (=lead up)
1a. She brought the girls up.
1b. She brought the girls up.
2a. *the girls up whom she brought
2b. *the girls up whom she brought
3a. *Up whom did she bring?

3b. *Up whom did she bring?
4a. Idiomatic meaning

4b. Non-idiomatic meaning

Intransitive phrasal verb: blow up

Free intransitive combination: walk on
1a. Idiomatic meaning

1b. Non-idiomatic meaning
2a. No semantic separability
2b. Semantic separability: eg swim on
3a. *The tank blew right up.
3b. He walked straight on.
4a. *Up blew the tank.

4b. He saw a man lying on the ground, but on he walked.

phrasal-prepositional verbs

We are looking forward to your party.
He thinks he can get away with everything.

Lecture 10
Clauses and sentences

A sentence is a construction consisting of one or more clauses.
A clause typically consists of the following elements:
subject

+

syntactic predicate

NP

+

VP [verb (+ complement/adjunct)]

A simple sentence consists of a single clause.
A multiple sentence contains two or more clauses.
Multiple sentences can be compound, complex or compound-complex.

A compound sentence involves coordination:
She likes me, but he hates me.

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A complex sentence involves embedding. That is, it contains a main clause and a subordinate
clause. The subordinate clause is one of the elements of the main clause:
[ I know [she likes me]].
[ I know [it]].

A compound-complex sentence involves both coordination and embedding:
[The plan [that you have] sounds exciting] and [we must give it some serious thought].

Types of subordinate clauses (Quirk et al. 1985)
1. Noun clauses:
a) subject position
- that-clause
[That he had done it] was obvious.
It was obvious [that he did it]. - extraposition
- wh-interrogative clause
[How the book will sell] depends on the reviewers.
- ing clause
[Watching TV] keeps them from studying grammar.
- infinitival clause
[To be neutral in this conflict] is out of the question.

b) object position
- that-clause
I know [that she likes me].
- wh-interrogative clause
He asked [where we were going].
- ing clause
I enjoy [playing practical jokes].
- infinitival clause
I want [Max to examine her].

Monotransitive vs ditransitive verbs in clause structure (Huddleston 1984)
I wanted [Max to examine her].

I persuaded [Max] [to examine her].
1. Pro-forms:
I wanted it.

*I persuaded it.
2. Passive # 1
*Max was wanted to examine her.
Max was persuaded to examine her.
3. Passive # 2
= I wanted her to be examined by Max.

≠

I persuaded her to be examined by Max.

4. Pleonastic pronouns
I wanted there to be an examination.
I persuaded there to be an examination.

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2. Adverb clauses: occupy adverbial positions;
provide information concerning time, place, manner, etc.
She telephoned [while you were out].
The road stops [after it goes under a bridge].
We must be careful [because it is dangerous].
She will scream [if you touch her].

3. Relative clauses: embedded in noun phrases
[The girl [who is standing in the corner]] is Jola.
[Jola, [who is standing is the corner]], is very beautiful.

[The girl [(whom / that) you met last week]] is Jola’s sister.
Jola, [whom you met last week], is leaving for Paris.

Basic clause patterns
1. Declarative clauses: typically used to make a statement.
subject + syntactic predicate (NP+VP):
You should take this course.
I go to the movies every weekend.

2. Interrogative clauses: used to pose a question.
a) Yes-no questions: operator + subject + syntactic predicate
Should I take this course?
Do you go to the movies every weekend?
b) Wh-questions:
Who went to the store?
Who(m) did you see yesterday?
I wonder what time it is.

3. Imperative clauses: used to issue directives (commands, requests, instructions etc).
Shut the window.
Sit down.
You be careful.
Everybody stand still.
Don’t anybody move.
4. Exclamative clauses: used to express strong feelings.
[NP What a good meal] it is!
[AdvP How hard] my students work!
[AdjP How strange] they look!

The there construction
A cat is in the garden.
There is a cat in the garden.

THERE + (AUX) + BE + NP (+ ADJUNCT)
syntactic

semantic

subject

subject

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There is a policeman at the door.
(with a locative PP)
There were some people ill.
(with a predicative adjective)
There was one student who kept complaining.
(with a relative clause)
There are many different kinds of jelly-fish.
(the bare there construction)


The status of there as syntactic subject
1. Occupies position immediately to the left of the verb.
2. Acts as subject in yes-no and tag questions.
3. Often determines agreement:
There are some people in the room.
There is a student in the room.
There's some people in the room.
A there-construction may contain verbs other than be: exist, remain occur, appear, come.
There remain many problems.
There appeared a huge gorilla.

Cleft sentences
A cleft-sentence consists of the following elements:
IT + (AUX) + BE + ________ + WHO/THAT + Subject/verb...

focused constituent

The focused constituent is normally an NP or a PP.

[John] wore [a white suit] [at the party].
1. It was John (sub. NP) who/that wore a white suit at the party.
2. It was a white suit (object NP) that John wore at the party.
3. It was at the party (PP-adjunct) that John wore a white suit last night.

1. It was because he lied that he was dismissed.
2. It’s her parents who are to blame.
3. It is I who am to blame.
4. It is me who is to blame.
5. It was in 1966 that England won the world cup.

Pseudo-cleft sentences
You need a good rest.
[What you need] is [a good rest].
subject

focused constituent

What I object to is that he lied.
*I object to that he lied.