THE

M

INNESOTA

A

RCHAEOLOGIST

VOLUME 68 2009

The Robert W

allace galley stove, Gr

eat Lakes Shipwr

eck Pr

eservation Society

Minnesota’s Lake Superior Shipwrecks

T

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M

innesoTa

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rchaeologisT

VOLUME 68 2009

Publications Committee

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Editor: Chuck Diesen

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Executive Board of the Minnesota Archaeological Society

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Treasurer: Paul Mielke

Directors: Jim Cummings, Chuck Diesen,

Rhoda R. Gilman, Joe McFarlane,

Ron Miles, Anna Morrow,

Deborah Schoenholz

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T

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innesoTa

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Volume 68 2009

C o n t e n t s

In Memoriam: Charles J. “Chuck” Revak

David H. Peterson ................................................................................................................................ 5

Not Just for Canada Anymore: Recent Discoveries of Knife Lake Siltstone Quarries and
Workshop Sites on Knife Lake in the Superior National Forest, Lake County, Minnesota

William J. Clayton and Heather M. Hoffman ........................................................................................ 7

Experimental Application of Hammer and Bar Flint Knapping to Knife Lake Siltstone
from Northern Minnesota

Dan Wendt and Anthony D. Romano ................................................................................................... 21

A Proposed Revised Lithic Nomenclature for Northeastern Minnesota

Brian N. Klawiter and Stephen L. Mulholland .................................................................................... 39

The Lithic Resources of Northeastern Minnesota

Stephen L. Mulholland and Brian N. Klawiter .................................................................................... 51

The Alton #7 Site (FS # 09-09-07-273), Superior National Forest, Cook County, Minnesota:
Assessing the Effects of Anthroturbation on an Initial Woodland Site in the Boundary Waters
Canoe Area Wilderness

Lee R. Johnson .................................................................................................................................... 71

Copper Types of Northeastern Minnesota

Mary H. Pulford .................................................................................................................................. 93

Ancient Copper Crosses Borders: The Old Copper Culture Migrates out of Minnesota into
Northwestern Ontario

Oliver N. Anttila ................................................................................................................................ 107

A Study of the Manufacture of Copper Spearheads in the Old Copper Complex

Giovanna Fregni ............................................................................................................................... 121

Ceramic Types of Northeastern Minnesota

Jennifer R. Hamilton ......................................................................................................................... 131

Thunder in the Wilderness: The Trade Guns of Northern Minnesota, 1675-1876

Larry Luukkonen ............................................................................................................................... 143

The Fur Trade Axe: A Preliminary Report of Iron Trade Axes Found in Northern Minnesota,
Northern Wisconsin and Northwestern Ontario

David H. Peterson ............................................................................................................................. 165

Minnesota’s Lake Superior Shipwrecks: Recent Listings on the National Register of Historic Places

David Mather .................................................................................................................................... 187

Research Report: Silver in the Fur Trade from Northeast Minnesota

Charles J. “Chuck” Revak ................................................................................................................. 197

Minnesota Connections: Hamline University in Aniakchak Bay, Alaska

Brian Hoffman ................................................................................................................................... 203

Notice to Authors

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121

freGNI - maNufaCture of CoPPer sPearHeads IN tHe oLd CoPPer ComPLeX.

Keywords: Copper Complex, copper metallurgy, Archaic
Period, metalworking, spearhead, swaging, swedging

the old Copper Complex

The Old Copper Complex of the Middle Archaic
(ca. 5,000 to 3,000 years ago) represents the peak of
copper manufacturing in this area (Behm 1997:35).
Along with the use of copper, there was an increased
use in more types of lithic materials and a devel-
opment of regional styles in stone tools (Mason
1981:146). Copper was considered a valuable com-
modity and was extensively traded, with both raw

pieces and finished artifacts having been found in
burials and caches (Mason 1981:181). The manu-
facture and distribution of copper was complex and
extensive, with trade goods found far outside of up-
per Great Lakes region (Wittry 1957:205; Steinbring
1966:567) and as far south as Tennessee.

1

During the earlier phases of copper manufacture

during the Middle Archaic, the focus was on tools,

weapons, and hunting and fishing gear. In northeast
Wisconsin this period has been dated to 2700 B.C.
(Pleger 1992:174) where the copper tools were man-
ufactured to resemble ground stone and slate tools
(Mason 1981:186), but as the Copper Complex pro-
gressed during the Middle Woodland phase (ca. 100
B.C. to ca. A.D. 500), the focus shifted to creating

1. A Wittry Class 1A spear head (A63:30:321) in the collection
of the Science Museum of Minnesota was collected in Western
Tennessee.

more ornamental and ceremonial objects and fewer
utilitarian objects (Behm 1997:35).

Despite the complexity of the finished arti-

facts, all of these objects were made without the
use of smelting or casting. Finds of leftover chips
and waste pieces indicate cutting and grinding pro-
cesses. Given that one of the aspects of the Copper
Complex is that it was aceramic (Martin 1999:168),
smelting or casting copper would not have been fea-
sible without the use of refractory materials such
as tempered clays. In order to melt copper, cru-
cibles and molds would have to be manufactured
from clay containing temper added in the form of
quartz or organic material. Tempering is necessary
in order for crucibles and molds to withstand crack-
ing due to thermal shock, or softening due to high
temperatures (Bailey 2007:47). This lack of high
temperature ceramic technology made melting and
casting copper impossible. However, the manufac-
turing process did incorporate hot and cold ham-
mering, and although the technology for smelting
and casting was unknown, annealing was necessary
to manipulate the copper without generating stress
fractures (Wittry 1957:205).

Classification of Artifacts

In an effort to organize copper artifacts of the Old
Copper Complex, Warren Wittry created a classi-

fication system (Wittry 1957:214-6). The artifacts
are divided by type (spear points, knives, spuds, or-
naments, and other objects). From there they are

A Study oF tHE mANuFACturE oF CoPPEr SPEArHEAdS IN tHE oLd CoPPEr
ComPLEx

Giovanna Fregni
University of Sheffield, UK

The Old Copper Complex of the Upper Midwest United States lasted from about 3000 to 1000 B.C. span-

ning the late Middle Archaic and the early Late Archaic (Gibbon 1998:27). During that time the indigenous

peoples manufactured copper tools, ornaments and weapons without the aid of smelting or casting. The

period is also noted for a lack of ceramic manufacture, or any other pyrotechnology.

Artifacts from the Archaic and Old Copper Complex have been known since the turn of the last century,

but little has been written about how copper tools were manufactured during this period. While smelting

and casting were not used, it has been seen that techniques using temperatures high enough to anneal cop-

per have been employed. The type of socketed spearhead classified by Wittry as 1A has a triangular cross

section and a socket formed with flanges bent in an even 90 degree angle for their length (Wittry 1957:210).

Creating this type of spearhead with only hammerstones and anvils would be difficult and inefficient.

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THE MINNESOTA ARCHAEOLOGIST - VOLUME 67 - 2009

further divided into subclasses such as spear point
Class 1A: a socketed spear point with a triangular
cross section, and Class 1B: a slightly domed spear

point with rounded socket flanges. Further divisions
include samples such as Class 1Aa: a socketed spear
point with a recessed socket. Projectile points were
manufactured in a variety of shapes including ones
with notched or serrated edges, "rat-tailed" tangs,
and tangs with holes presumably for rivets.

Artifacts and Sites

Copper artifacts have been collected in the Upper
Great Lakes region since the nineteenth century
(Wittry 1957:204). However, almost every recov-

ered artifact was obtained as random surface finds

in the more populated areas, in plowed fields, or in
gravel quarries. Because the vast majority of copper
artifacts have been found in those areas that were de-

veloped in the last century, the distribution of finds
should be regarded as biased. The eastern portion of
the region where copper artifacts are most commonly
found were developed earlier than the northern and
western locations, with the greatest concentrations

of finds having been found near the shores of Lake
Michigan in Washington and Manitowoc counties of
Wisconsin, and along the Wolf and Fox Rivers of
Wisconsin (Wittry 1957:209; Mason 1981:188).

Although the vast majority of copper artifacts

have been surface finds, three significant sites were
excavated in the 1950s: Osceola (Grant County,
Wisconsin) located in the Mississippi drainage;
Oconto (Oconto County, Wisconsin) and Reigh
(Winnebago County, Wisconsin). The latter two
are located in northeast Wisconsin on waterways

flowing to Green Bay (Ritzenthaler and Scholz
1957:185; Mason 1981:189). All of these were
burial sites (Mason 1981:190). In 2006, Mark Hill
published a report on a habitation site at Duck Lake
in the Upper Peninsula of Michigan. This site was
relatively undisturbed, having been found by collec-
tors (Hill 2006:217). (Fig. 1)

However, it should be noted that none of the ear-

lier sites were in pristine condition when excavated.
The Reigh and Oconto sites were located in quar-
ries, and the Osceola site was undercut and exposed
by the river and reported by collectors (Ritzenthaler
and Scholz 1957:187).

In 1945, the Osceola site was the first Old

Copper Complex site to be systematically excavated
(Ritzenthaler and Scholz 1957:222). The site is lo-
cated on the banks of the Mississippi, 2 miles south
of Potosi in Grant County, Wisconsin (Rizenthaler
and Scholz 1957:187). It was excavated in 1945 and
was a burial site with an estimated population about
of 500 burials, with both bundle and cremation buri-
als found there (Ritzenthaler and Scholz 1957:188).
Copper awls, asymmetrical tanged knives, coni-
cal points, socketed spear points, a knife, socketed
spuds, beads, a bracelet, along with knapped stone
tools, hammerstones, cubes of galena, grindstones,
and red ocher were interred in the burials that were
dated to 1500 B.C. (Mason 1981:191; Ritzenthaler
and Scholz 1957:193).

The Oconto site was the second site discovered,

located on the western side of the city of Oconto
(Ritzenthaler and Wittry 1957:224). The site was
located in a gravel pit and was compromised by

quarrying. However forty-five graves were exca-
vated with an estimated original size of over 100
square feet and a population of 200 (Ritzenthaler
and Wittry 1957:222, 224). Graves included bun-

dle, cremation, flexed and extended burials (Mason
1981:191) with several double burials and one
triple burial (Ritzenthaler and Wittry 1957:232).
Although there were fewer copper artifacts found
here than at Osceola, the copper burial goods re-
sembled those found at Osceola, although they did
not include any asymmetrical tanged knives, coni-
cal points or spuds. The socketed points that were

Figure 1. map of sites discussed in text.

123

freGNI - maNufaCture of CoPPer sPearHeads IN tHe oLd CoPPer ComPLeX.

excavated had rolled or circular sockets with flat
blades, where Osceola produced angular sockets
with ridged blades. Crescents ("ulu"

knives) were

found at Oconto, but not at Osceola. Also unique to
this site were long stemmed projectile points with
a notched base (Mason 1981:191; Ritzenthaler and
Wittry 1957:232). In addition, copper awls were
found in upper layers that were apparently unrelated
to the burials (Ritzenthaler and Wittry 1957:231).
The Oconto site and the Osceola site are located 210
miles apart, but it is impossible to determine if the
sites were in use at the same time (Ritzenthaler and
Wittry 1957:238). The date for the Oconto site is
problematical since radiocarbon dates seem to con-

flict with dates established for the levels of Lake
Michigan during that period. An estimated date of
2590 + 400 years B.C. would make it older than the
Osceola site by about 1100 to 1750 years (Mason
1981:192-3).

The Reigh site is dated to 1700 B.C., spanning

the time between the Old Copper Complex and the
Early Woodland and making it possible that the site
was contemporary with Osceola. The site was locat-
ed on a farm on Lake Butte des Morts in Winnebago
County, Wisconsin (Ritzenthaler et al. 1957:278) and
was found when the owners expanded their gravel
quarrying operations (Ritzenthaler et al. 1957:297).
This site contained more copper tools than orna-
ments, with more of the copper crescents and spuds,
and of the three sites had the largest assembly found.
Also discovered were "ace of spades" type points,
beads and a headdress constructed of strips of cop-
per (Mason 1981:193).

Since all three of these sites were burial sites,

they do not necessarily represent the daily lives
and working tools of the people of the Old Copper
Complex.

Unlike the earlier excavations, the Duck Lake

Site was a manufacturing site and most likely a sea-
sonal camp. Limited excavations were done in 1996
and 1997 (Hill 2006:217). The site is located on the
eastern branch of the Ontonogan River near the base
of the Keweenaw Peninsula in the Upper Peninsula
of Michigan (Hill 2006:215). Two hearths were
found along with copper scrap, nuggets, preforms

and finished copper tools along with lithics and bone.
In addition, an anvil stone with a worked piece of
copper was found near the hearths (Hill 2006:220).
Two samples of charcoal were taken for carbon dat-

ing and provided a range of 1685 B.C. to 1705 B.C.
(Hill 2006:221, 223, 240). Recovered seeds indi-
cate that the sites were in use during the late summer
or early autumn (Hill 2006:241). In all, 87 pieces of
copper were recovered from the site, with 22 per-
cent of the pieces being nuggets of unworked copper
that were found on the surface (Hill 2006:234).

Unfortunately due to the few systematically

excavated sites, little is known about the culture
of the peoples of the Old Copper Complex (Mason
1981:194).

Copper Locations and Mining

Trace element analysis shows that most of the cop-
per for the artifacts manufactured during the Old
Copper Complex has been associated with met-
al found on the surface on Isle Royale (Gibbon
1998:33, 43), on the surface on the Keweenaw
Peninsula of Upper Michigan, and the Brule River
in northeast Wisconsin

(Mason 1981:181). Copper

naturally occurs in these areas where it was quarried
during the Middle Archaic, but nuggets of copper

were also carried farther south as glacial float where

it could have been collected as surface finds (Mason
1981:181; Behm 1997:33). Copper from this re-

gion is identified as having come from Isle Royale
or the Keweenaw Peninsula due to traces of silver
and a distinct parallel grain on the long axis (Jury
1965:224). Although the earliest available date for
worked copper is 3657 B.C. at Modoc Rock Shelter
in Southern Illinois (Steinbring 1975:68), most of

the finds have been concentrated in Wisconsin,
Minnesota and Ontario (Wittry 1957:205)

Isle Royale is located in the northwest corner

of Lake Superior, about 15 miles (24 km) from
the Canadian shore and 56 miles (90 km) from the
Michigan shore. Prehistoric mining activity was
documented on the island in detailed reports written
by William Holmes (1901). He described mining
techniques in which copper was crushed with stone
sledge hammers and the quarry area was heated with

charcoal fires that were then doused with cold water
to crack the rock (Holmes 1901:688). In a quarried
area about 10 feet deep and 20 feet in diameter, he
found over a dozen sledge hammers, charcoal and
broken pieces of hammerstones (Holmes 1901:691).
However, in spite of its remote location, it appeared
that none of the copper was worked on the island

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THE MINNESOTA ARCHAEOLOGIST - VOLUME 67 - 2009

and instead was transported to the mainland where it
was either traded or used for manufacture (Holmes
1901:695)

Copper Manufacturing

Evidence of copper working on sites consists of

small flakes and chips of copper that are occasion-

ally found with unfinished pieces (Jury 1965:242).
Some sites where copper was worked have been
found, such as the Duck Lake Site in the Upper
Peninsula of Michigan where hearths were found
along with pieces of copper scrap, nuggets and pre-
formed pieces (Hill 2006:220).

Copper is highly ductile, meaning that it can

easily be hammered into sheets or drawn into wire.
However, repeated working of copper requires an-
nealing to prevent cracking. The metal turns a dis-
tinct red color when it has reached the temperature
for annealing (405° C or 761° F). Since it has a
very high melting temperature of 1083° C (1981°
F) (McCreight 1982:2, 7), there is little chance of
accidentally melting the metal when annealing it.

Wilson and Sayre (1935) conducted a metallo-

graphic examination of several artifacts. After etch-
ing the surface with ammonia and hydrogen perox-
ide, they examined the crystalline structure. Pure
unworked copper does not display any grain struc-
ture. However, when copper is worked by hammer-
ing or rolling and annealing, the crystal structure
will exhibit a phenomenon known as twinning, in
which the crystal structure appears to be bisected by
dark lines. Through this examination they were able
to determine that the artifacts had been annealed,
whether or not the artifacts had been worked while
the metal was hot, as well as the temperature to
which the metal had been heated (Wilson and Sayre
1935:112).

Early metal smiths employed a variety of means

of working copper. Pieces were hammered as well
as ground into shape on limestone anvils using a va-
riety of grit sizes in the process (Martin 1999:124).
Copper was also rolled into thin sheets on stone anvils
(Willoughby 1903:55). These sheets of copper were
then carefully hammered over wooden or sandstone
forms (Martin 1999:127). Charles Willoughby rec-
reated this process of forming copper on site using
native copper and convenient stones and successful-
ly duplicated an elaborate Hopewell ear ornament

(Willoughby 1903:55). Hollow, domed bracelets
and plates were also manufactured with this tech-
nique. In some pieces the thin sheets of copper
were also riveted to a wooden or bone form (Martin
1999:130). An extensive campaign of experimental
work was undertaken by Joseph Neubauer, Sr., who
manufactured a number of objects using his own
process. He carefully chose appropriate pieces of
copper and then formed them into ingots using up to
thirty cycles of annealing and hammering. He also
noted that careful attention to the annealing process
could maintain a silver-copper alloy from the natu-
ral metallic inclusions (Peterson 2003).

Experiments conducted by Romano demonstrat-

ed a wide range of skills and specialized tools that
could have been used to manufacture copper clad-
ding for digging sticks. That work utilized stone
forms and specialized hammerstones that were com-
pared for morphology and use wear to ones found
in the archaeological record at the Neubauer site
(Romano and Mulholland 2000:130). More recent
experiments performed by Michael LaRong (2001)
demonstrated that sheet copper could be manufac-
tured from nuggets of copper through multiple an-
nealing and hammering episodes. In addition the
experiments yielded information that could help
identify the processes in which sheet copper was
worked (LaRong 2001).

The particular shape of Wittry 1A spear points

as well as other socketed tools such as spuds could
have been produced by a process called "swedging
,"

2

where a preformed piece of copper is hammered

into the negative space in a mold of wood or stone.
Hoy claimed to have found a piece of a limestone
mold that could have been used for this purpose
(Martin 1999:130). In his dissertation Steinbring
proposed that swedging was the most likely means
by which Wittry 1A spear points could have been
manufactured. While no one had duplicated the
technique, he suggested that a microscopic analysis
of the upper surface might reveal embedded trac-
es of limestone from the original mold (Steinbring
1975:90). He paid particular attention to the manu-
facture of the socket, noting that "continuous ham-
mering would… lead to a rounded cross section"

The more common term is swaging. However, the authors
cited using this technique (Steinbring 1975), Martin (1999),
and Peterson (2003)) use the term swedging.

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freGNI - maNufaCture of CoPPer sPearHeads IN tHe oLd CoPPer ComPLeX.

rather than the typical sockets with flanges evenly
formed at 90° or 60° angles (Steinbring 1975:90).

the Collection at the Science Museum of

Minnesota

Selected artifacts of the collection of Wittry Class
1A copper spear points at the Science Museum of
Minnesota were examined and measured in order
to better understand their manufacturing process.
About half of those examined (those beginning
with accession number 53), are part of the Norman
Collection and have been documented in an article
in Wisconsin Archaeologist (Jensen 1962:65-69).

Artifacts from the Norman Collection were

found in Wisconsin and Minnesota over an extend-
ed period of time beginning in 1920. The original
intent of the project was to compare the corrosion

of Old and New World copper based artifacts, when
it was noticed that the corrosion patterns and sur-
face texture on the Wittry 1A spearheads exhibited a
similar morphology. In these artifacts, the two sides
forming the dorsal side of the triangular spearheads
are smooth (Fig. 2), while the ventral side exhib-
ited an undulating and creased surface that was ac-
centuated by mild corrosion. The ventral surface
texture could have been formed by the folding of
metal and hammering it back into the surface, thus
creating small gaps where the corrosion developed
(Fig. 3). When the entire collection was compared,
it could be seen that the Wittry 1A spears lacked
evidence of hammering on the dorsal surface, where
other copper spearheads had a more dented, ham-
mered surface (such as Wittry 1F or 1B). The lack
of hammered texture could have been the result of
sanding or grinding in antiquity, and so closer ex-

Figure 2. Wittry type 1A spear point (53-39). Spear shows distinct ridge along smooth dorsal surface.
(Photo by author, used with permission of the Science museum of minnesota.)

Figure 3. Wittry type 1A spear point (53-39). Spear shows folded metal and corrosion patterns on ventral
surface. (Photo by author, used with permission of the Science museum of minnesota.)

126

THE MINNESOTA ARCHAEOLOGIST - VOLUME 67 - 2009

amination was suggested in order
to better determine the manufac-
turing process. In addition, the
sockets of Wittry 1A spear points
are all formed with a sharp 60° to
90° crease for their length which
runs from 4 cm to beyond 7 cm.
A subset of the 1A type also has a
recessed socket, where the interior
has a step that places the inside of
the socket lower than the bottom
edge of the blade (Fig. 4). Forming
a socketed spearhead with a trian-
gular cross section and a precisely
angled socket would have been

difficult and time consuming with
only an anvil and hammer and, as
noted earlier by Steinbring, and
would have taken on a more rounded
appearance (Steinbring 1975:90).

Spear points and other copper artifacts of the

Old Copper Complex were manufactured without

smelting or casting the metal, which would have

necessitated hammering the artifact into its finished

shape from nuggets of native copper. The first ques-
tion was how one would hammer a raised lateral rib

Figure 4. Socket of Wittry type 1A spear point (53-43). Socket shows
sharply creased sides and recessed surface inside socket. (Photo by
author, used with permission of the Science museum of minnesota.)

Accession

number

Len. of

Blade

(mm)

Angle

1

Angle

2

Angle

3

Angle

4

Angle

5

Aver. of

all

angles

Aver. of

angles

less tip

Variation

of angle

less tip

Notes

53-39

96.6

153

152

150

144

159

151

149

9

53-42

111

156

157

157

155

146

154

156

2 Corrosion,

serrated

edges

53-43

108

148

152

148

159

168

155

151

11 tip slightly

bent

53-46

64.6

155

154

154

155

150

153

155

1

53-47

83.2

157

157

150

148

156

153

153

9

53-54

108.5

158

158

152

153

163

156

155

6 tip

damaged

A2003:3:37

76

157

158

158

154

155

156

156

4

A2003:3:38

57.8

152

156

156

145

156

153

152

11

A63:30:321

77.3

156

156

150

146

178

157

152

10

A71:12:83

80.8

144

142

143

145

159

146

143

3

A94:4:45

108

149

150

148

148

162

151

149

2

table 1

12

freGNI - maNufaCture of CoPPer sPearHeads IN tHe oLd CoPPer ComPLeX.

to create a triangular cross section, as well as ham-
mering the socket with a long straight edge. The
easiest means of achieving this would be swedg-
ing after annealing the copper.

3

Not only could the

spearhead be quickly manufactured by this process,
but it would also provide some uniformity that

would be more difficult to achieve through hammer-
ing by hand. Jury noted that socketed points tended
to have similar design (Jury 1965:237). A larger

collection was briefly examined at the Minnesota
Historical Society and it was noted that of the sock-
eted spearheads, the general description of the arti-
fact (smooth dorsal surfaces and folded ventral sur-

face with sharply angled socket flanges) was consis-
tent throughout the collection. In a report published
in

The Wisconsin Archeologist, a spud found at the

Osceola site was "slipped onto [an antler haft from

the Reigh site] and a neater, snugger fit could hardly
be imagined" (Ritzenthaler et al. 1957:280). If arti-
facts from one site to another could be that uniform,
it could indicate that there was a technology that
employed molds for manufacture.

Experiments such as the ones described above

indicate that copper working required an under-
standing of metallurgy and required the manufac-
ture of specialized tools

in order to work nuggets of

native copper into a finished form.

Analysis of Copper Artifacts

A selection of the Wittry Class 1A spearheads were
taken to the University of Minnesota’s archaeol-
ogy labs for analysis. There, 3D surface images
were taken using a Leica Stereo Explorer, and the
angles of the dorsal ridge were measured using a
Next Engine Desktop 3D Scanner. The angles were
measured from the shoulder, the tip, the midpoint
and at points midway between. Table 1 shows the
angles taken progressively from the shoulder to the

In an experiment to understand how the projectile points

might have been manufactured, a mold was carved from a block

of seasoned walnut. A small charcoal fire was laid and tem-

peratures were monitored. Within 45 minutes the bed of coals

reached 15° C (600° F) without use of a blowtube or bellows.

A temperature of 48° C (900° F) was easily maintained and

the coals eventually reached a high temperature of about 677° C

(150° F). The copper was easily hammered using a hand held

hammerstone, although a hafted one would have made the work

easier. The socket was formed by pushing the flattened metal

into the mold using a short piece of wood that fit the interior of

the socket to form the metal into the characteristic 90° angle
flanges.

tip. The results were that the angles of the dorsal
ridge are even and have an extreme variation of 11°,
although in some of these this variation is caused
by damage or surface corrosion. Taking an average
of all the angles, the variation between the different
spearheads is also 11°. This consistency of angle
could be accomplished by swedging or by hammer-
ing and then grinding the copper to a smooth sur-
face. By using a swedging technique, a spearhead
can be manufactured in a matter of a few minutes.
In addition, the spear points in the collection have
a maximum thickness of 3 mm to 5 mm, regard-
less of length (Table 2). Hammering the copper to
raise a surface, especially one as regular as these,
and then sanding and polishing the surface would
be time consuming and the process would involve a
considerable loss of metal. This loss might not have
been a concern since the material was in abundant
supply, but because there was no means of smelting,
the small fragments created by grinding would have
been of little use, unless they were retained and used
for ritual purposes.

If the spearheads had been ground to create a

triangular shape, then there would be evidence of
abrasion by rubbing the spear point on a coarse
surface or on a surface using sand as an abrasive.

Using first a Bodelin Proscope HR and then the
Leica Stereo Explorer, digital photographs were
taken of the surfaces of the spear points. In some
cases (A71:12:83, A73:1:142), there is evidence of

filing, possibly with a modern tool. The scratches

are remarkably even under magnification and more
consistent with a modern tool than with pre-contact
technology. Given that few artifacts were found in
context and many were part of personal collections
for several years before donation to the museum, it
is possible that they could have been cleaned or even
repaired before donation. Others of the spear points
exhibit some sanding (53-47), while the majority
does not appear to have been sanded. One (53-39)
might have been sanded, but the surface exhibits a
dendritic corrosion, which gave the appearance of
having been sanded.

Conclusion: "You don’t find what you’re not

looking for"

If molds were employed in the manufacture of
spearheads, then we would hope to have evidence of

12

THE MINNESOTA ARCHAEOLOGIST - VOLUME 67 - 2009

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table 2

12

freGNI - maNufaCture of CoPPer sPearHeads IN tHe oLd CoPPer ComPLeX.

them. Unfortunately few settlement and manufac-
turing sites have been excavated. Although P.R. Hoy

published the find of a partial granite mold in 1879
(Martin 1999:130), little mention has been made of
the use of molds in copper manufacture since then.
Molds themselves might not survive well in the ar-
chaeological record if they were manufactured of
wood, and even stone molds would be subject to
breakage. In addition, broken molds might not be
recognized for what they are unless the excavator

was specifically looking for early metal-working
equipment. However, molds would make manu-

facturing of Wittry Class 1A spearheads an efficient
process with consistent results; where hammering
and grinding the surface would be time consuming
and involve loss of metal that could not be reused.

Most of the extant literature on the Old Copper

Complex examines typologies, copper sources and
burial customs, but with the lack of documented ex-
cavations of habitation or work sites, the result is a

deficiency of information on Old Copper Complex
technology. This contributes to a void in the under-
standing of a fascinating process for manufacture,
and the emerging social complexity that accompa-
nies specialized knowledge in the creation of elite
goods (Ehrhardt

2009:219). However, further in-

vestigation using experimental archaeology can pro-
vide a means for comprehending the choices made
in procuring copper, the manufacture of tools and the
processes involved in manipulating the raw copper

into a finished artifact. It is hoped that more interest
in this area of early metallurgy will develop, as well
as further study of this intriguing period of North
American prehistoric technology. By understand-
ing the processes by which artifacts are created, new
insights are gained into the lives of the people of the
Old Copper Complex.

In addition to surface examination, metallo-

graphic examination of the crystalline structure
could impart further information about annealing
temperatures and processes and industrial CT-scans
could reveal internal structures that might result
from swedging.

Acknowledgments. My heartfelt thanks to Ed Fleming
and Gretchen Anderson of the Science Museum of
Minnesota for their encouragement and training, and to
Dr. John Soderberg of the University of Minnesota, who
introduced me to archaeological metals, and for use of
the lab equipment there. Thanks also to Denny Lien and
Terry Garey for providing additional much needed mate-
rial.

References Cited

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Classification of Crucibles. Metals and

Mines: Studies in Archaeometallurgy. S.
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Behm, J.A.
1997 Prehistoric Technology.

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Archeologist 78(1/2):21-46.

Ehrhardt, K.
2009 Copper Working Technologies, Contexts of

Use, and Social Complexity in the Eastern
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Gibbon, G.
1998 Old Copper in Minnesota: A Review.

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Hill, M.
2006 The Duck Lake Site and Implications

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Holmes, W.H.
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Lake Superior.

American Anthropologist

(New Series) 3(4):684-696.

Jensen, P.
1962 The J.F. Norman Collection of Copper

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The Wisconsin Archeologist

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Jury, W.
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Martin, S.R.
1999

Wonderful Power: The Story of Ancient

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McCreight, T.
1982

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1981

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Peterson, D.H.
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the Menominee River.

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The Minnesota

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1966 Old Copper Culture Artifacts in Manitoba.

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The Minnesota Archaeologist

VOLUME 68 2009

Copyright © 2010 by the Minnesota Archaeological Society. All rights reserved.

Published by The Minnesota Archaeological Society

and

Prairie Smoke Press, PO Box 439, Champlin, MN 55316

C o n t e n t s

In Memoriam: Charles J. “Chuck” Revak

David H. Peterson ................................................................................................................................ 5

Not Just for Canada Anymore: Recent Discoveries of Knife Lake Siltstone Quarries and

Workshop Sites on Knife Lake in the Superior National Forest, Lake County, Minnesota

William J. Clayton and Heather M. Hoffman ........................................................................................ 7

Experimental Application of Hammer and Bar Flint Knapping to Knife Lake Siltstone

from Northern Minnesota

Dan Wendt and Anthony D. Romano ................................................................................................... 21

A Proposed Revised Lithic Nomenclature for Northeastern Minnesota

Brian N. Klawiter and Stephen L. Mulholland .................................................................................... 39

The Lithic Resources of Northeastern Minnesota

Stephen L. Mulholland and Brian N. Klawiter .................................................................................... 51

The Alton #7 Site (FS # 09-09-07-273), Superior National Forest, Cook County, Minnesota:

Assessing the Effects of Anthroturbation on an Initial Woodland Site in the Boundary Waters

Canoe Area Wilderness

Lee R. Johnson .................................................................................................................................... 71

Copper Types of Northeastern Minnesota

Mary H. Pulford .................................................................................................................................. 93

Ancient Copper Crosses Borders: The Old Copper Culture Migrates out of Minnesota into

Northwestern Ontario

Oliver N. Anttila ................................................................................................................................ 107

A Study of the Manufacture of Copper Spearheads in the Old Copper Complex

Giovanna Fregni ............................................................................................................................... 121

Ceramic Types of Northeastern Minnesota

Jennifer R. Hamilton ......................................................................................................................... 131

Thunder in the Wilderness: The Trade Guns of Northern Minnesota, 1675-1876

Larry Luukkonen ............................................................................................................................... 143

The Fur Trade Axe: A Preliminary Report of Iron Trade Axes Found in Northern Minnesota,

Northern Wisconsin and Northwestern Ontario

David H. Peterson ............................................................................................................................. 165

Minnesota’s Lake Superior Shipwrecks: Recent Listings on the National Register of Historic Places

David Mather .................................................................................................................................... 187

Research Report: Silver in the Fur Trade from Northeast Minnesota

Charles J. “Chuck” Revak ................................................................................................................. 197

Minnesota Connections: Hamline University in Aniakchak Bay, Alaska

Brian Hoffman ................................................................................................................................... 203