THE

INNESOTA

RCHAEOLOGIST

VOLUME 68 2009

The Robert W

allace galley stove, Gr

eat Lakes Shipwr

eck Pr

eservation Society

Minnesota’s Lake Superior Shipwrecks

innesoTa

rchaeologisT

VOLUME 68 2009

Publications Committee

Managing Editor: Kent Bakken

Editor: Chuck Diesen

Volume Editor: Susan C. Mulholland

Proofreader: Anna Morrow

Executive Board of the Minnesota Archaeological Society

President: Rod Johnson

Vice President: Pat Emerson

Secretary: Debbie Pommer

Treasurer: Paul Mielke

Directors: Jim Cummings, Chuck Diesen,

Rhoda R. Gilman, Joe McFarlane,

Ron Miles, Anna Morrow,

Deborah Schoenholz

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innesoTa

rchaeologisT

Volume 68 2009

C o n t e n t s

In Memoriam: Charles J. “Chuck” Revak

David H. Peterson ................................................................................................................................ 5

Not Just for Canada Anymore: Recent Discoveries of Knife Lake Siltstone Quarries and
Workshop Sites on Knife Lake in the Superior National Forest, Lake County, Minnesota

William J. Clayton and Heather M. Hoffman ........................................................................................ 7

Experimental Application of Hammer and Bar Flint Knapping to Knife Lake Siltstone
from Northern Minnesota

Dan Wendt and Anthony D. Romano ................................................................................................... 21

A Proposed Revised Lithic Nomenclature for Northeastern Minnesota

Brian N. Klawiter and Stephen L. Mulholland .................................................................................... 39

The Lithic Resources of Northeastern Minnesota

Stephen L. Mulholland and Brian N. Klawiter .................................................................................... 51

The Alton #7 Site (FS # 09-09-07-273), Superior National Forest, Cook County, Minnesota:
Assessing the Effects of Anthroturbation on an Initial Woodland Site in the Boundary Waters
Canoe Area Wilderness

Lee R. Johnson .................................................................................................................................... 71

Copper Types of Northeastern Minnesota

Mary H. Pulford .................................................................................................................................. 93

Ancient Copper Crosses Borders: The Old Copper Culture Migrates out of Minnesota into
Northwestern Ontario

Oliver N. Anttila ................................................................................................................................ 107

A Study of the Manufacture of Copper Spearheads in the Old Copper Complex

Giovanna Fregni ............................................................................................................................... 121

Ceramic Types of Northeastern Minnesota

Jennifer R. Hamilton ......................................................................................................................... 131

Thunder in the Wilderness: The Trade Guns of Northern Minnesota, 1675-1876

Larry Luukkonen ............................................................................................................................... 143

The Fur Trade Axe: A Preliminary Report of Iron Trade Axes Found in Northern Minnesota,
Northern Wisconsin and Northwestern Ontario

David H. Peterson ............................................................................................................................. 165

Minnesota’s Lake Superior Shipwrecks: Recent Listings on the National Register of Historic Places

David Mather .................................................................................................................................... 187

Research Report: Silver in the Fur Trade from Northeast Minnesota

Charles J. “Chuck” Revak ................................................................................................................. 197

Minnesota Connections: Hamline University in Aniakchak Bay, Alaska

Brian Hoffman ................................................................................................................................... 203

Notice to Authors

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www.mnarchaeologicalsociety.org

121

freGNI - maNufaCture of CoPPer sPearHeads IN tHe oLd CoPPer ComPLeX.

Keywords: Copper Complex, copper metallurgy, Archaic
Period, metalworking, spearhead, swaging, swedging

the old Copper Complex

The  Old  Copper  Complex  of  the  Middle  Archaic
(ca. 5,000 to 3,000 years ago) represents the peak of
copper manufacturing in this area (Behm 1997:35).
Along with the use of copper, there was an increased
use  in  more  types  of  lithic  materials  and  a  devel-
opment  of  regional  styles  in  stone  tools  (Mason
1981:146).  Copper was considered a valuable com-
modity  and  was  extensively  traded,  with  both  raw

pieces and finished artifacts having been found in
burials and caches (Mason 1981:181). The manu-
facture and distribution of copper was complex and
extensive, with trade goods found far outside of up-
per Great Lakes region (Wittry 1957:205; Steinbring
1966:567) and as far south as Tennessee.

During the earlier phases of copper manufacture

during the Middle Archaic, the focus was on tools,

weapons, and hunting and fishing gear.  In northeast
Wisconsin this period has been dated to 2700 B.C.
(Pleger 1992:174) where the copper tools were man-
ufactured  to  resemble  ground  stone  and  slate  tools
(Mason 1981:186), but as the Copper Complex pro-
gressed during the Middle Woodland phase (ca. 100
B.C.  to ca. A.D. 500), the focus shifted to creating

1. A Wittry Class 1A spear head (A63:30:321) in the collection
of the Science Museum of Minnesota was collected in Western
Tennessee.

more ornamental and ceremonial objects and fewer
utilitarian objects (Behm 1997:35).

Despite the complexity of the finished arti-

facts,  all  of  these  objects  were  made  without  the
use of smelting or casting.  Finds of leftover chips
and waste pieces indicate cutting and grinding pro-
cesses.  Given that one of the aspects of the Copper
Complex is that it was aceramic (Martin 1999:168),
smelting or casting copper would not have been fea-
sible  without  the  use  of  refractory  materials  such
as  tempered  clays.    In  order  to  melt  copper,  cru-
cibles  and  molds  would  have  to  be  manufactured
from  clay  containing  temper  added  in  the  form  of
quartz or organic material.  Tempering is necessary
in order for crucibles and molds to withstand crack-
ing due to thermal shock, or softening due to high
temperatures  (Bailey  2007:47).    This  lack  of  high
temperature ceramic technology made melting and
casting copper impossible.  However, the manufac-
turing  process  did  incorporate  hot  and  cold  ham-
mering,  and  although  the  technology  for  smelting
and casting was unknown, annealing was necessary
to  manipulate  the  copper  without  generating  stress
fractures (Wittry 1957:205).

Classification of Artifacts

In an effort to organize copper artifacts of the Old
Copper Complex, Warren Wittry created a classi-

fication system (Wittry 1957:214-6). The artifacts
are divided by type (spear points, knives, spuds, or-
naments, and other objects). From there they are

A Study oF tHE mANuFACturE oF CoPPEr SPEArHEAdS IN tHE oLd CoPPEr
ComPLEx

Giovanna Fregni
University of Sheffield, UK

The Old Copper Complex of the Upper Midwest United States lasted from about 3000 to 1000 B.C. span-

ning the late Middle Archaic and the early Late Archaic (Gibbon 1998:27). During that time the indigenous

peoples manufactured copper tools, ornaments and weapons without the aid of smelting or casting. The

period is also noted for a lack of ceramic manufacture, or any other pyrotechnology.

Artifacts from the Archaic and Old Copper Complex have been known since the turn of the last century,

but little has been written about how copper tools were manufactured during this period. While smelting

and casting were not used, it has been seen that techniques using temperatures high enough to anneal cop-

per have been employed. The type of socketed spearhead classified by Wittry as 1A has a triangular cross

section and a socket formed with flanges bent in an even 90 degree angle for their length (Wittry 1957:210).

Creating this type of spearhead with only hammerstones and anvils would be difficult and inefficient.

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THE MINNESOTA ARCHAEOLOGIST - VOLUME 67 - 2009

further divided into subclasses such as spear point
Class 1A: a socketed spear point with a triangular
cross section, and Class 1B: a slightly domed spear

point with rounded socket flanges.  Further divisions
include samples such as Class 1Aa: a socketed spear
point with a recessed socket.  Projectile points were
manufactured in a variety of shapes including ones
with  notched  or  serrated  edges,  "rat-tailed"  tangs,
and tangs with holes presumably for rivets.

Artifacts and Sites

Copper  artifacts  have  been  collected  in  the  Upper
Great  Lakes  region  since  the  nineteenth  century
(Wittry  1957:204).    However,  almost  every  recov-

ered artifact was obtained as random surface finds

in the more populated areas, in plowed fields, or in
gravel quarries. Because the vast majority of copper
artifacts have been found in those areas that were de-

veloped in the last century, the distribution of finds
should be regarded as biased. The eastern portion of
the region where copper artifacts are most commonly
found were developed earlier than the northern and
western locations, with the greatest concentrations

of finds having been found near the shores of Lake
Michigan in Washington and Manitowoc counties of
Wisconsin, and along the Wolf and Fox Rivers of
Wisconsin (Wittry 1957:209; Mason 1981:188).

Although the vast majority of copper artifacts

have been surface finds, three significant sites were
excavated  in  the  1950s:  Osceola  (Grant  County,
Wisconsin)  located  in  the  Mississippi  drainage;
Oconto  (Oconto  County,  Wisconsin)  and  Reigh
(Winnebago  County,  Wisconsin).    The  latter  two
are  located  in  northeast  Wisconsin  on  waterways

flowing  to  Green  Bay  (Ritzenthaler  and  Scholz
1957:185;  Mason  1981:189).    All  of  these  were
burial sites (Mason 1981:190).  In 2006, Mark Hill
published a report on a habitation site at Duck Lake
in the Upper Peninsula of Michigan.  This site was
relatively undisturbed, having been found by collec-
tors (Hill 2006:217). (Fig. 1)

However, it should be noted that none of the ear-

lier sites were in pristine condition when excavated.
The Reigh and Oconto sites were located in quar-
ries, and the Osceola site was undercut and exposed
by the river and reported by collectors (Ritzenthaler
and Scholz 1957:187).

In 1945, the Osceola site was the first Old

Copper Complex site to be systematically excavated
(Ritzenthaler and Scholz 1957:222).  The site is lo-
cated on the banks of the Mississippi, 2 miles south
of  Potosi  in  Grant  County, Wisconsin  (Rizenthaler
and Scholz 1957:187).  It was excavated in 1945 and
was a burial site with an estimated population about
of 500 burials, with both bundle and cremation buri-
als found there (Ritzenthaler and Scholz 1957:188).
Copper  awls,  asymmetrical  tanged  knives,  coni-
cal points, socketed spear points, a knife, socketed
spuds, beads, a bracelet, along with knapped stone
tools, hammerstones, cubes of galena, grindstones,
and red ocher were interred in the burials that were
dated to 1500 B.C. (Mason 1981:191; Ritzenthaler
and Scholz 1957:193).

The Oconto site was the second site discovered,

located  on  the  western  side  of  the  city  of  Oconto
(Ritzenthaler  and  Wittry  1957:224).    The  site  was
located  in  a  gravel  pit  and  was  compromised  by

quarrying.    However  forty-five  graves  were  exca-
vated  with  an  estimated  original  size  of  over  100
square  feet  and  a  population  of  200  (Ritzenthaler
and  Wittry  1957:222,  224).    Graves  included  bun-

dle, cremation, flexed and extended burials (Mason
1981:191)  with  several  double  burials  and  one
triple  burial  (Ritzenthaler  and  Wittry  1957:232).
Although  there  were  fewer  copper  artifacts  found
here  than  at  Osceola,  the  copper  burial  goods  re-
sembled those found at Osceola, although they did
not  include  any  asymmetrical  tanged  knives,  coni-
cal points or spuds.  The socketed points that were

Figure 1. map of sites discussed in text.

123

freGNI - maNufaCture of CoPPer sPearHeads IN tHe oLd CoPPer ComPLeX.

excavated  had  rolled  or  circular  sockets  with  flat
blades,  where  Osceola  produced  angular  sockets
with  ridged  blades.    Crescents  ("ulu"

knives) were

found at Oconto, but not at Osceola.  Also unique to
this  site  were  long  stemmed  projectile  points  with
a notched base (Mason 1981:191; Ritzenthaler and
Wittry  1957:232).    In  addition,  copper  awls  were
found in upper layers that were apparently unrelated
to  the  burials  (Ritzenthaler  and  Wittry  1957:231).
The Oconto site and the Osceola site are located 210
miles apart, but it is impossible to determine if the
sites were in use at the same time (Ritzenthaler and
Wittry  1957:238).   The  date  for  the  Oconto  site  is
problematical since radiocarbon dates seem to con-

flict  with  dates  established  for  the  levels  of  Lake
Michigan during that period.  An estimated date of
2590 + 400 years B.C. would make it older than the
Osceola  site  by  about  1100  to  1750  years  (Mason
1981:192-3).

The Reigh site is dated to 1700 B.C., spanning

the time between the Old Copper Complex and the
Early Woodland and making it possible that the site
was contemporary with Osceola.  The site was locat-
ed on a farm on Lake Butte des Morts in Winnebago
County, Wisconsin (Ritzenthaler et al. 1957:278) and
was  found  when  the  owners  expanded  their  gravel
quarrying operations (Ritzenthaler et al. 1957:297).
This  site  contained  more  copper  tools  than  orna-
ments, with more of the copper crescents and spuds,
and of the three sites had the largest assembly found.
Also  discovered  were  "ace  of  spades"  type  points,
beads and a headdress constructed of strips of cop-
per (Mason 1981:193).

Since all three of these sites were burial sites,

they do not necessarily represent the daily lives
and working tools of the people of the Old Copper
Complex.

Unlike the earlier excavations, the Duck Lake

Site was a manufacturing site and most likely a sea-
sonal camp.  Limited excavations were done in 1996
and 1997 (Hill 2006:217).  The site is located on the
eastern branch of the Ontonogan River near the base
of the Keweenaw Peninsula in the Upper Peninsula
of  Michigan  (Hill  2006:215).    Two  hearths  were
found  along  with  copper  scrap,  nuggets,  preforms

and finished copper tools along with lithics and bone.
In  addition,  an  anvil  stone  with  a  worked  piece  of
copper was found near the hearths (Hill 2006:220).
Two samples of charcoal were taken for carbon dat-

ing and provided a range of 1685 B.C. to 1705 B.C.
(Hill  2006:221,  223,  240).    Recovered  seeds  indi-
cate that the sites were in use during the late summer
or early autumn (Hill 2006:241).  In all, 87 pieces of
copper  were  recovered  from  the  site,  with  22  per-
cent of the pieces being nuggets of unworked copper
that were found on the surface (Hill 2006:234).

Unfortunately due to the few systematically

excavated sites, little is known about the culture
of the peoples of the Old Copper Complex (Mason
1981:194).

Copper Locations and Mining

Trace element analysis shows that most of the cop-
per  for  the  artifacts  manufactured  during  the  Old
Copper  Complex  has  been  associated  with  met-
al  found  on  the  surface  on  Isle  Royale  (Gibbon
1998:33,  43),  on  the  surface  on  the  Keweenaw
Peninsula of Upper Michigan, and the Brule River
in northeast Wisconsin

(Mason 1981:181). Copper

naturally occurs in these areas where it was quarried
during the Middle Archaic, but nuggets of copper

were also carried farther south as glacial float where

it could have been collected as surface finds (Mason
1981:181; Behm 1997:33). Copper from this re-

gion is identified as having come from Isle Royale
or  the  Keweenaw  Peninsula  due  to  traces  of  silver
and  a  distinct  parallel  grain  on  the  long  axis  (Jury
1965:224).  Although the earliest available date for
worked copper is 3657 B.C. at Modoc Rock Shelter
in  Southern  Illinois  (Steinbring  1975:68),  most  of

the finds have been concentrated in Wisconsin,
Minnesota and Ontario (Wittry 1957:205)

Isle Royale is located in the northwest corner

of  Lake  Superior,  about  15  miles  (24  km)  from
the Canadian shore and 56 miles (90 km) from the
Michigan  shore.    Prehistoric  mining  activity  was
documented on the island in detailed reports written
by  William  Holmes  (1901).    He  described  mining
techniques in which copper was crushed with stone
sledge hammers and the quarry area was heated with

charcoal fires that were then doused with cold water
to crack the rock (Holmes 1901:688).  In a quarried
area about 10 feet deep and 20 feet in diameter, he
found  over  a  dozen  sledge  hammers,  charcoal  and
broken pieces of hammerstones (Holmes 1901:691).
However, in spite of its remote location, it appeared
that  none  of  the  copper  was  worked  on  the  island

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THE MINNESOTA ARCHAEOLOGIST - VOLUME 67 - 2009

and instead was transported to the mainland where it
was either traded or used for manufacture (Holmes
1901:695)

Copper Manufacturing

Evidence of copper working on sites consists of

small flakes and chips of copper that are occasion-

ally found with unfinished pieces (Jury 1965:242).
Some  sites  where  copper  was  worked  have  been
found,  such  as  the  Duck  Lake  Site  in  the  Upper
Peninsula  of  Michigan  where  hearths  were  found
along with pieces of copper scrap, nuggets and pre-
formed pieces (Hill 2006:220).

Copper is highly ductile, meaning that it can

easily be hammered into sheets or drawn into wire.
However,  repeated  working  of  copper  requires  an-
nealing to prevent cracking.  The metal turns a dis-
tinct red color when it has reached the temperature
for  annealing  (405°  C  or  761°  F).    Since  it  has  a
very  high  melting  temperature  of  1083°  C  (1981°
F)  (McCreight  1982:2,  7),  there  is  little  chance  of
accidentally melting the metal when annealing it.

Wilson and Sayre (1935) conducted a metallo-

graphic examination of several artifacts.  After etch-
ing the surface with ammonia and hydrogen perox-
ide,  they  examined  the  crystalline  structure.    Pure
unworked copper does not display any grain struc-
ture.  However, when copper is worked by hammer-
ing  or  rolling  and  annealing,  the  crystal  structure
will  exhibit  a  phenomenon  known  as  twinning,  in
which the crystal structure appears to be bisected by
dark lines.  Through this examination they were able
to  determine  that  the  artifacts  had  been  annealed,
whether or not the artifacts had been worked while
the  metal  was  hot,  as  well  as  the  temperature  to
which the metal had been heated (Wilson and Sayre
1935:112).

Early metal smiths employed a variety of means

of working copper.  Pieces were hammered as well
as ground into shape on limestone anvils using a va-
riety of grit sizes in the process (Martin 1999:124).
Copper was also rolled into thin sheets on stone anvils
(Willoughby 1903:55).  These sheets of copper were
then carefully hammered over wooden or sandstone
forms (Martin 1999:127).  Charles Willoughby rec-
reated this process of forming copper on site using
native copper and convenient stones and successful-
ly  duplicated  an  elaborate  Hopewell  ear  ornament

(Willoughby  1903:55).    Hollow,  domed  bracelets
and  plates  were  also  manufactured  with  this  tech-
nique.    In  some  pieces  the  thin  sheets  of  copper
were also riveted to a wooden or bone form (Martin
1999:130).  An extensive campaign of experimental
work was undertaken by Joseph Neubauer, Sr., who
manufactured  a  number  of  objects  using  his  own
process.    He  carefully  chose  appropriate  pieces  of
copper and then formed them into ingots using up to
thirty cycles of annealing and hammering.  He also
noted that careful attention to the annealing process
could maintain a silver-copper alloy from the natu-
ral metallic inclusions (Peterson 2003).

Experiments conducted by Romano demonstrat-

ed a wide range of skills and specialized tools that
could  have  been  used  to  manufacture  copper  clad-
ding  for  digging  sticks.    That  work  utilized  stone
forms and specialized hammerstones that were com-
pared  for  morphology  and  use  wear  to  ones  found
in  the  archaeological  record  at  the  Neubauer  site
(Romano and Mulholland 2000:130).  More recent
experiments performed by Michael LaRong (2001)
demonstrated  that  sheet  copper  could  be  manufac-
tured from nuggets of copper through multiple an-
nealing  and  hammering  episodes.    In  addition  the
experiments  yielded  information  that  could  help
identify  the  processes  in  which  sheet  copper  was
worked (LaRong 2001).

The particular shape of Wittry 1A spear points

as well as other socketed tools such as spuds could
have been produced by a process called "swedging
,"

where a preformed piece of copper is hammered

into the negative space in a mold of wood or stone.
Hoy  claimed  to  have  found  a  piece  of  a  limestone
mold  that  could  have  been  used  for  this  purpose
(Martin  1999:130).    In  his  dissertation  Steinbring
proposed that swedging was the most likely means
by  which  Wittry  1A  spear  points  could  have  been
manufactured.    While  no  one  had  duplicated  the
technique, he suggested that a microscopic analysis
of  the  upper  surface  might  reveal  embedded  trac-
es of limestone from the original mold (Steinbring
1975:90).  He paid particular attention to the manu-
facture of the socket, noting that "continuous ham-
mering  would…  lead  to  a  rounded  cross  section"

The more common term is swaging. However, the authors
cited using this technique (Steinbring 1975), Martin (1999),
and Peterson (2003)) use the term swedging.

125

freGNI - maNufaCture of CoPPer sPearHeads IN tHe oLd CoPPer ComPLeX.

rather than the typical sockets with flanges evenly
formed at 90° or 60° angles (Steinbring 1975:90).

the Collection at the Science Museum of

Minnesota

Selected  artifacts  of  the  collection  of  Wittry  Class
1A  copper  spear  points  at  the  Science  Museum  of
Minnesota  were  examined  and  measured  in  order
to  better  understand  their  manufacturing  process.
About  half  of  those  examined  (those  beginning
with accession number 53), are part of the Norman
Collection and have been documented in an article
in Wisconsin Archaeologist (Jensen 1962:65-69).

Artifacts from the Norman Collection were

found in Wisconsin and Minnesota over an extend-
ed period of time beginning in 1920. The original
intent of the project was to compare the corrosion

of Old and New World copper based artifacts, when
it  was  noticed  that  the  corrosion  patterns  and  sur-
face texture on the Wittry 1A spearheads exhibited a
similar morphology.  In these artifacts, the two sides
forming the dorsal side of the triangular spearheads
are  smooth  (Fig.  2),  while  the  ventral  side  exhib-
ited an undulating and creased surface that was ac-
centuated  by  mild  corrosion.    The  ventral  surface
texture  could  have  been  formed  by  the  folding  of
metal and hammering it back into the surface, thus
creating small gaps where the corrosion developed
(Fig. 3).  When the entire collection was compared,
it  could  be  seen  that  the  Wittry  1A  spears  lacked
evidence of hammering on the dorsal surface, where
other  copper  spearheads  had  a  more  dented,  ham-
mered surface (such as Wittry 1F or 1B).  The lack
of hammered texture could have been the result of
sanding  or  grinding  in  antiquity,  and  so  closer  ex-

Figure 2. Wittry type 1A spear point (53-39). Spear shows distinct ridge along smooth dorsal surface.
(Photo by author, used with permission of the Science museum of minnesota.)

Figure 3. Wittry type 1A spear point (53-39). Spear shows folded metal and corrosion patterns on ventral
surface. (Photo by author, used with permission of the Science museum of minnesota.)

126

THE MINNESOTA ARCHAEOLOGIST - VOLUME 67 - 2009

amination  was  suggested  in  order
to  better  determine  the  manufac-
turing  process.    In  addition,  the
sockets  of Wittry  1A  spear  points
are all formed with a sharp 60° to
90°  crease  for  their  length  which
runs  from  4  cm  to  beyond  7  cm.
A subset of the 1A type also has a
recessed socket, where the interior
has a step that places the inside of
the  socket  lower  than  the  bottom
edge of the blade (Fig. 4).  Forming
a socketed spearhead with a trian-
gular cross section and a precisely
angled  socket  would  have  been

difficult and time consuming with
only an anvil and hammer and, as
noted earlier by Steinbring, and
would have taken on a more rounded
appearance (Steinbring 1975:90).

Spear points and other copper artifacts of the

Old Copper Complex were manufactured without

smelting or casting the metal, which would have

necessitated hammering the artifact into its finished

shape from nuggets of native copper. The first ques-
tion was how one would hammer a raised lateral rib

Figure 4. Socket of Wittry type 1A spear point (53-43). Socket shows
sharply creased sides and recessed surface inside socket. (Photo by
author, used with permission of the Science museum of minnesota.)

Accession

number

Len. of

Blade

(mm)

Angle

Aver. of

all

angles

Aver. of

angles

less tip

Variation

of angle

less tip

Notes

53-39

96.6

153

152

150

144

159

151

149

53-42

111

156

157

155

146

154

156

2 Corrosion,

serrated

edges

53-43

108

148

152

148

159

168

155

151

11 tip slightly

bent

53-46

64.6

155

154

155

150

153

155

53-47

83.2

157

150

148

156

153

53-54

108.5

158

152

153

163

156

155

6 tip

damaged

A2003:3:37

157

158

154

155

156

A2003:3:38

57.8

152

156

145

156

153

152

A63:30:321

77.3

156

150

146

178

157

152

A71:12:83

80.8

144

142

143

145

159

146

143

A94:4:45

108

149

150

148

162

151

149

table 1

freGNI - maNufaCture of CoPPer sPearHeads IN tHe oLd CoPPer ComPLeX.

to create a triangular cross section, as well as ham-
mering  the  socket  with  a  long  straight  edge.    The
easiest  means  of  achieving  this  would  be  swedg-
ing after annealing the copper.

Not only could the

spearhead be quickly manufactured by this process,
but it would also provide some uniformity that

would be more difficult to achieve through hammer-
ing by hand. Jury noted that socketed points tended
to have similar design (Jury 1965:237). A larger

collection was briefly examined at the Minnesota
Historical Society and it was noted that of the sock-
eted spearheads, the general description of the arti-
fact (smooth dorsal surfaces and folded ventral sur-

face with sharply angled socket flanges) was consis-
tent throughout the collection. In a report published
in

The Wisconsin Archeologist, a spud found at the

Osceola site was "slipped onto [an antler haft from

the Reigh site] and a neater, snugger fit could hardly
be imagined" (Ritzenthaler et al. 1957:280). If arti-
facts from one site to another could be that uniform,
it could indicate that there was a technology that
employed molds for manufacture.

Experiments such as the ones described above

indicate that copper working required an under-
standing of metallurgy and required the manufac-
ture of specialized tools

in order to work nuggets of

native copper into a finished form.

Analysis of Copper Artifacts

A selection of the Wittry Class 1A spearheads were
taken  to  the  University  of  Minnesota’s  archaeol-
ogy  labs  for  analysis.    There,  3D  surface  images
were  taken  using  a  Leica  Stereo  Explorer,  and  the
angles  of  the  dorsal  ridge  were  measured  using  a
Next Engine Desktop 3D Scanner.  The angles were
measured  from  the  shoulder,  the  tip,  the  midpoint
and at points midway between.  Table 1 shows the
angles taken progressively from the shoulder to the

In an experiment to understand how the projectile points

might have been manufactured, a mold was carved from a block

of seasoned walnut. A small charcoal fire was laid and tem-

peratures were monitored. Within 45 minutes the bed of coals

reached 15° C (600° F) without use of a blowtube or bellows.

A temperature of 48° C (900° F) was easily maintained and

the coals eventually reached a high temperature of about 677° C

(150° F). The copper was easily hammered using a hand held

hammerstone, although a hafted one would have made the work

easier. The socket was formed by pushing the flattened metal

into the mold using a short piece of wood that fit the interior of

the socket to form the metal into the characteristic 90° angle
flanges.

tip.   The  results  were  that  the  angles  of  the  dorsal
ridge are even and have an extreme variation of 11°,
although  in  some  of  these  this  variation  is  caused
by damage or surface corrosion.  Taking an average
of all the angles, the variation between the different
spearheads  is  also  11°.    This  consistency  of  angle
could be accomplished by swedging or by hammer-
ing  and  then  grinding  the  copper  to  a  smooth  sur-
face.  By using a swedging technique, a spearhead
can be manufactured in a matter of a few minutes.
In  addition,  the  spear  points  in  the  collection  have
a  maximum  thickness  of  3  mm  to  5  mm,  regard-
less of length (Table 2).  Hammering the copper to
raise  a  surface,  especially  one  as  regular  as  these,
and  then  sanding  and  polishing  the  surface  would
be time consuming and the process would involve a
considerable loss of metal.  This loss might not have
been a concern since the material was in abundant
supply, but because there was no means of smelting,
the small fragments created by grinding would have
been of little use, unless they were retained and used
for ritual purposes.

If the spearheads had been ground to create a

triangular  shape,  then  there  would  be  evidence  of
abrasion  by  rubbing  the  spear  point  on  a  coarse
surface  or  on  a  surface  using  sand  as  an  abrasive.

Using  first  a  Bodelin  Proscope  HR  and  then  the
Leica  Stereo  Explorer,  digital  photographs  were
taken  of  the  surfaces  of  the  spear  points.    In  some
cases (A71:12:83, A73:1:142), there is evidence of

filing, possibly with a modern tool. The scratches

are remarkably even under magnification and more
consistent with a modern tool than with pre-contact
technology.  Given that few artifacts were found in
context and many were part of personal collections
for several years before donation to the museum, it
is possible that they could have been cleaned or even
repaired before donation.  Others of the spear points
exhibit  some  sanding  (53-47),  while  the  majority
does not appear to have been sanded.  One (53-39)
might have been sanded, but the surface exhibits a
dendritic  corrosion,  which  gave  the  appearance  of
having been sanded.

Conclusion: "You don’t find what you’re not

looking for"

If molds were employed in the manufacture of
spearheads, then we would hope to have evidence of

THE MINNESOTA ARCHAEOLOGIST - VOLUME 67 - 2009

. No

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table 2

freGNI - maNufaCture of CoPPer sPearHeads IN tHe oLd CoPPer ComPLeX.

them. Unfortunately few settlement and manufac-
turing sites have been excavated. Although P.R. Hoy

published the find of a partial granite mold in 1879
(Martin 1999:130), little mention has been made of
the use of molds in copper manufacture since then.
Molds themselves might not survive well in the ar-
chaeological  record  if  they  were  manufactured  of
wood,  and  even  stone  molds  would  be  subject  to
breakage.    In  addition,  broken  molds  might  not  be
recognized  for  what  they  are  unless  the  excavator

was specifically looking for early metal-working
equipment. However, molds would make manu-

facturing of Wittry Class 1A spearheads an efficient
process with consistent results; where hammering
and grinding the surface would be time consuming
and involve loss of metal that could not be reused.

Most of the extant literature on the Old Copper

Complex examines typologies, copper sources and
burial customs, but with the lack of documented ex-
cavations of habitation or work sites, the result is a

deficiency of information on Old Copper Complex
technology.  This contributes to a void in the under-
standing  of  a  fascinating  process  for  manufacture,
and  the  emerging  social  complexity  that  accompa-
nies  specialized  knowledge  in  the  creation  of  elite
goods  (Ehrhardt

2009:219). However, further in-

vestigation using experimental archaeology can pro-
vide a means for comprehending the choices made
in procuring copper, the manufacture of tools and the
processes involved in manipulating the raw copper

into a finished artifact.  It is hoped that more interest
in this area of early metallurgy will develop, as well
as  further  study  of  this  intriguing  period  of  North
American  prehistoric  technology.    By  understand-
ing the processes by which artifacts are created, new
insights are gained into the lives of the people of the
Old Copper Complex.

In addition to surface examination, metallo-

graphic  examination  of  the  crystalline  structure
could  impart  further  information  about  annealing
temperatures and processes and industrial CT-scans
could  reveal  internal  structures  that  might  result
from swedging.

Acknowledgments.  My heartfelt thanks to Ed Fleming
and  Gretchen  Anderson  of  the  Science  Museum  of
Minnesota  for  their  encouragement  and  training,  and  to
Dr. John Soderberg of the University of Minnesota, who
introduced  me  to  archaeological  metals,  and  for  use  of
the lab equipment there.  Thanks also to Denny Lien and
Terry Garey for providing additional much needed mate-
rial.

References Cited

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Classification of Crucibles. Metals and

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Behm, J.A.
1997 Prehistoric Technology.

The Wisconsin

Archeologist 78(1/2):21-46.

Ehrhardt, K.
2009 Copper Working Technologies, Contexts of

Use, and Social Complexity in the Eastern
Woodlands of Native North America.

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Gibbon, G.
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Hill, M.
2006 The Duck Lake Site and Implications

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1962 The J.F. Norman Collection of Copper

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Martin, S.R.
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70].

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1957 The Oconto Site – An Old Copper

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Romano, A.D. and S.L. Mulholland.
2000 The Robert and Debra Neubauer Site

(21PN86), Pine County, Minnesota: An
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Site on Mission Creek.

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The Minnesota Archaeologist

VOLUME 68 2009

Published by The Minnesota Archaeological Society

and

Prairie Smoke Press, PO Box 439, Champlin, MN 55316

C o n t e n t s

In Memoriam: Charles J. “Chuck” Revak

David H. Peterson ................................................................................................................................ 5

Not Just for Canada Anymore: Recent Discoveries of Knife Lake Siltstone Quarries and

Workshop Sites on Knife Lake in the Superior National Forest, Lake County, Minnesota

William J. Clayton and Heather M. Hoffman ........................................................................................ 7

Experimental Application of Hammer and Bar Flint Knapping to Knife Lake Siltstone

from Northern Minnesota

Dan Wendt and Anthony D. Romano ................................................................................................... 21

A Proposed Revised Lithic Nomenclature for Northeastern Minnesota

Brian N. Klawiter and Stephen L. Mulholland .................................................................................... 39

The Lithic Resources of Northeastern Minnesota

Stephen L. Mulholland and Brian N. Klawiter .................................................................................... 51

The Alton #7 Site (FS # 09-09-07-273), Superior National Forest, Cook County, Minnesota:

Assessing the Effects of Anthroturbation on an Initial Woodland Site in the Boundary Waters

Canoe Area Wilderness

Lee R. Johnson .................................................................................................................................... 71

Copper Types of Northeastern Minnesota

Mary H. Pulford .................................................................................................................................. 93

Ancient Copper Crosses Borders: The Old Copper Culture Migrates out of Minnesota into

Northwestern Ontario

Oliver N. Anttila ................................................................................................................................ 107

A Study of the Manufacture of Copper Spearheads in the Old Copper Complex

Giovanna Fregni ............................................................................................................................... 121

Ceramic Types of Northeastern Minnesota

Jennifer R. Hamilton ......................................................................................................................... 131

Thunder in the Wilderness: The Trade Guns of Northern Minnesota, 1675-1876

Larry Luukkonen ............................................................................................................................... 143

The Fur Trade Axe: A Preliminary Report of Iron Trade Axes Found in Northern Minnesota,

Northern Wisconsin and Northwestern Ontario

David H. Peterson ............................................................................................................................. 165

Minnesota’s Lake Superior Shipwrecks: Recent Listings on the National Register of Historic Places

David Mather .................................................................................................................................... 187

Research Report: Silver in the Fur Trade from Northeast Minnesota

Charles J. “Chuck” Revak ................................................................................................................. 197

Minnesota Connections: Hamline University in Aniakchak Bay, Alaska

Brian Hoffman ................................................................................................................................... 203

Document Outline