JOGMEC
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1. The Arctic Council evolving
0Within the last two decades, the Arctic has
The Arctic Council
Table
transformed from a forgotten backwater at the
end of the Cold War to becoming a focus of
Member States Observer States
increased international attention. The Arctic
Canada China �
Council was set up in Ottawa, Canada in 1 9 9 6 France
Denmark
�Greenland �
Germany
among the eight Arctic states� Canada, Denmark,
India �
Iceland
Italy �
Finland, Iceland, Norway, Russia, Sweden, and the
Finland
Japan �
The Netherlands
U.S.. Its own history cites its formation as to serve Norway
Poland
Russia
 as a high-level intergovernmental forum to provide South Korea �
Singapore �
Sweden
a means for promoting cooperation, coordination
Spain
U.S.A. United Kingdom
and interaction among the Arctic States, with the
��Admitted in May 2013
Source�The Arctic Council, http://www.arctic-council.org/index.php/en/
involvement of the Arctic indigenous communities
and other Arctic inhabitants on common Arctic
issues; in particular, issues of sustainable development
�1
and environmental protection in the Arctic. In short, 0After all the Arctic was a remote and foreboding
it had a limited mandate, only to issues pertaining to place, attracting the attention of only cranks,
�3
protection of the environment and the indigenous visionaries and dictators. U.S. President William
peoples. In fact, during its formative years, it garnered Taft 9 0 9-1 9 1 3 �thought ownership of the North Pole
�1
little attention, and was even ignored by its eight to be useless. By the mid-20th century, the region
creators. The Arctic Council toiled in the margins of became a major theater of the Cold War. In the former
international affairs, its membership described as cozy Soviet Union, Stalin�leader of the Soviet Union from
and club-like. �2 1924 t o 1953 �, i n hi s rel ent l ess dri ve f or
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industrialization, created gulags and mines in the permanent observer status to five decidedly non-polar
Russian Arctic. The 1 9 7 0s saw the opening up of the Asian nations� China, India, Japan, Singapore, and
North Slope of Alaska to oil development. At the end South Korea. �5 The Arctic was once the province of
of the Cold War, the Arctic was relegated as an the five littoral states�Canada, Greenland, Norway,
afterthought on the international stage. Russia, and the U.S. �
. But attention of and participation
from non-Arctic European nations and now Asian
0Seemingly, in the blink of an eye, everything nations underscore and reflect the growing importance
changed. In 200 6, NASA showed pictures of melting of the region. �6 The Arctic is now global.
polar ice caps. In 2 0 0 7, a Russian Arctic scientist laid
claim to the North Pole by planting his nation s
s flag on 0The Arctic Council visibility has ascended hand-in-
the seabed in an election campaign publicity stunt. �4 hand with the increased changes in the Arctic due to
The geopolitical race was on as accessibility to the accelerated climate change. �7 In granting non-Arctic
Arctic became a tangible reality. The Arctic Council nations the status of permanent observers, the Arctic
was soon thrust in the international arena. Seventeen Council has broadened the emphasis of its raison d
ętre.
years after its founding, the Arctic Council granted In addition to its prior emphasis on advancing
Source� Hugo Ahlenius, UNEP/GRID-Arendal, http://www.grida.no/graphicslib/detail/arctic-topography-and-bathymetry-
topographic-map_d003
Political topographic map of the Arctic
Fig1
2014.3 Vol.48 No.2 40
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JAPAN AND THE ARCTIC�NOT SO POLES APART
sustainable development of the Arctic while preserving Route�NSR �cut travel time and distance by 3 0 � and
and conserving its unique ecosystems, the Arctic offer cheaper transit, compared to the traditional
Council placed a new emphasis on increased cooperation southern route whereby ships pass through the Strait
and interaction with business. �8 This development also of Malacca and the Suez Canal.�South Korea has
reflects how the future of Arctic affairs will more than dubbed the NSR as the Silk Road of the Twenty-First
likely be influenced by Asian nations. The main drivers Century.
�The second economic driver for the nations
are economic in nature. New sea routes in the Arctic  of East Asia is the Arctic
s abundant resources. �9
the North West Passage�NWP �and the Northern Sea
2. The Arctic itself evolving
0The effects of climate change on the Arctic means ocean stretches, the Arctic remains inhospitable, with
that the Arctic geography is changing. One of the long and dark winters, and areas far from search and
s
more tangible effects of this change is that Arctic rescue facilities. � 14 Indeed, the Arctic represents
waters are open for passage during most of the special hazards, such as the danger of icing on
summer months. The effects of climate change happen installations, long distances between offshore fields and
more rapidly than anywhere else in the world. � 10 land and lack of infrastructure. �15 And yet, despite the
Melting sea ice will soon allow extended navigation bleakness, the prospect of the Arctic as a resource
periods in the Arctic Ocean, with the potential to base has opened new economic potential.
transform commercial shipping �11, giving rise to new,
shorter sea lanes. Shipping traffic in the Arctic could 0It is against this backdrop that this paper will
rise dramatically. explore Japan increased interest in the Arctic.
s
Having succeeded to permanent observer status in the
0The Arctic also holds 13� of the world
s undiscovered Arctic Council, Japan has the potential to help shape
oil, along with 30 � of undiscovered natural gas and the challenges emerging as the Arctic changes. Japan
20� of undiscovered natural gas liquids. �12 Furthermore, brings considerable financial, scientific and legitimating
�16
according to the U.S. Geological Survey, 84 � of the capacity to the Council. As do its two competing
undiscovered oil and gas occurs offshore of the Arctic East Asian neighbors, China and South Korea, also
littoral states. �13 newly-minted permanent observers to the Arctic
Council. All three countries are deeply dependent on
0It is no wonder that industry and government foreign trade. Their aims of establishing partnerships
representatives are full of high hopes. But despite large among the Arctic states are understandable.
3. JAPAN IN THE ARCTIC
a �
Formative Years in Developing an Arctic late in the game;�of Arctic affairs=�. The article
Strategy excoriated Japan
s governance, saying it was at risk of
0In August 2 0 1 2, one of Japan top newspapers, the lagging behind, in contrast to China and South Korea.
s
Yomiuri Shimbun, wrote that Japan has started out Indeed, of its two neighbors, Japan was the last to file
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its application to obtain observer status to the Arctic government. The civil service looks to business for
Council. �17 As recently as four years ago, Japanese information. Businesses look to the government on
policymakers paid scant attention to the Arctic. �18 In trade issues. This process also applies to formulation of
reality, Japan has a long history in polar research, Arctic policy.
acknowledged and encouraged by the Japanese
government, predating its two neighbors. �19 Its early 0i �
Ministerial Level
focus was on Antarctica in 1 9 5 7. In the 1 9 9 0s, the 00�% Ministry of Foreign Affairs
�MOFA �
Nippon Foundation and the Ship & Ocean Foundation 00�% Ministry of Land, Infrastructure, Transport and
�now the Ocean Policy Research Foundation �, worked Tourism
�MLIT �
with Norway and Russia. Together they formed the 00�% Ministry of Education, Culture, Sports, Science
International Northern Sea Route Program�INSROP �, and Technology
�MEXT �
a six-year project, whose purpose was to study the 00�% Ministry of Defense
�MOD �
viability and feasibility of Arctic shipping lanes. � 20
INSROP morphed into the Japan Northern Sea Route 0ii �
Research Organizations, Think-Tanks,
Program�JANSROP �and JANSROP II. Covering a Independent Agencies �26
three-year span�2 0 0 2-2 0 0 5 �, its aim was to study the 00�% The Ocean Policy Research Foundation
�OPRF �
NSR for the Japanese shipping industry. �21 But due to 00�% National Institute for Polar Research
�NIPR �
Japanese companies skepticism of Arctic shipping 00�% Japan Institute of International Affairs
�JIIA �
routes, combined with Japan s economic decline 00�% Japan Oil, Gas and Metals National Corporation
starting in the 19 90s, shipping companies concluded �JOGMEC �
the risks far outweighed potential benefits. 00�%Japan Agency for Marine-Earth Science and
Technology
�JAMSTEC �
0Japanese companies backed off, but government 00�% Institute of Low Temperature Science
�ILTS �
efforts on formulation of an Arctic policy continued 00�% Japan Consortium for Arctic Environmental
apace. In 2009, Japan officially submitted its application Research
�JCAR �
for Permanent Observer status to the Arctic Council. �22 00�% Japan Aerospace Exploration Agency
�JAXA �
In 2 0 1 0, the Ministry of Foreign Affairs�MOFA �
established an Arctic Task Force under the Ocean 0iii �
Private Institutions
Division, International Legal Affairs Bureau, in order 00�% Energy and Shipping Companies
to make cross-sectoral approach towards the foreign
policy on the Arctic including the aspect of international c �
The Attraction of the Arctic for Japan
�23
law. Since November 2012, officials from MOFA 0As a maritime nation, the Japanese government
have attended Arctic Council meetings. And in 2 0 1 2, a understandably has a deep interest in the promotion
major think-tank, the Japan Institute of International and usage of Arctic passageways. One shipping route,
Affairs�JIIA �, released a research project entitled, the NSR, passes through the Arctic Ocean connecting
"Arctic Governance and Japan's Diplomatic Strategy", the Atlantic Ocean with the Pacific Ocean. �27 With
bolstering government efforts. �24 melting sea ice resulting from global climate change,
the commercial potential of the route is becoming more
b �
Japan s Movers and Shakers in Arctic tangible. Traffic is certainly increasing. According to
Affairs Rosatomflot, a Russian state-run corporation that
0Japan
s process in formulating public policy has been guides ships through the Arctic with nuclear-powered
described as being an iron triangle, consisting of the icebreakers, the number of cargo ships taking the NSR
civil service, politicians, and business interests. �25 It can has jumped from 4 in 2 0 1 0 to 3 4 in 2 0 1 1, representing
be characterized as symbiotic or parasitic, depending a more than eight-fold increase.�In contrast, the Suez
on one s point of view. Businesses lobby the Canal handled 1 7,7 9 9 trips in the same year. � �28 But
2014.3 Vol.48 No.2 42
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because the navigation season has now lengthened to Europe. �30
four months a year, from July to mid-November, NSR
traffic can only grow. As of mid-September 2 0 1 3, 5 3 1 000Utilizing the NSR has obvious advantages than
vessels received transit permits. �29 the traditional southern route through the Strait of
Malacca and Suez Canal. The first advantage is
0i � distance. The NSR is 3,900 nautical miles�7,2 23
Shipping
000The NSR has long been viewed as a short-cut km �shorter than the southern route which is over
linking Asia to Europe via Russia Arctic coast. 1 1,0 00 nautical miles�2 0,3 72 km �. Along with
s
Japanese and South Korean energy companies are shaving distance, the second advantage is that
already shipping oil products through the ice. Last voyage time is also saved. Cargoes transiting
year, Gazprom shipped liquefied natural gas
�LNG � through the Suez Canal can take approximately 3 5
to Japan. In August 2013, Norway sent two days. The NSR cuts the travel time by up to 20
shipments of oil products�one of them naphtha �to days. �31
Japan. Using the NSR on a return trip from Asia
to Europe, South Korea sent high-quality diesel to 000The NSR
s third advantage lies in saving money
Source�
https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File�Sevmorput%27.jpg
Comparing the Northern Sea Route in red
Fig2
and transit via the Suez Canal in blue
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and lives by avoiding security risks. By transiting Implementation of these plans is doubtful, as
through the NSR, ships can effectively lower the nuclear power supplied only 2� of electric
possibility of pirate encounters. The Strait of generation in 2 0 1 2. �39 Nuclear energy will remain
Malacca and the Gulf of Aden are notorious havens a key source of base-load power, as a December
for pirates, who board ships and kidnap their 2013 draft of the new Basic Energy Plan states. �40
crews for ransom. This translates into higher in- Once Asia
s largest nuclear power producer, Japan
surance premiums for carriers and the risk of recorded its first trade deficit since 1980 due to
losing lives. Rounding the Africa Cape of Good increased reliance on imported LNG to offset the
s
Hope is available, but this route would be longer in loss of its nuclear capacity. The 2011 trade deficit
terms of distance and time, and again, would add totaled Ą2.49 trillion�US$32 billion �. � 41 Japan
to shipping costs. �32 imported 7 9.4 million tons of LNG from January to
November 2013. � 42 Japan has diversified its
000To sum up the costs and benefits of the NSR for energy mix, importing crude from Iran. But this
commercial shipping, the time and distance saved entails political risk, with U.S. sanctions ever-
transiting through the NSR is offset by higher looming on banks companies conducting business
costs. Despite saving fuel, carriers still have to pay with Iran. In May 2 0 1 3, crude imports from Iran
higher transit fees to Russia, along with ensuring more than doubled compared to the previous year.
the use of icebreakers. Foreign ships are also The U.S. extended Japan exemption for another
s
required to notify the Russian government three six months. �43
months in advance. Some Japanese observers see
Russian bureaucracy as more formidable than 000Japan lacks sufficient domestic hydrocarbon
Arctic ice. �33 One CEO predicts that the NSR will resources, meeting less than 15 � of its primary
take another 1 0 to 2 0 years to become truly viable energy usagge from domestic resources. It is the
for container ships. �34 The Secretary-General of world largest LNG importer, ranking second
s
the International Maritime Organization, Koji behind China in coal imports, and third in oil imports
Sekimizu states that icebreaker support is more behind the U.S. and China. �44 It is thus in Japan
s
than necessary, as ice will remain a big issue even best interest to cultivate a diversity of resource
�45
during summer. Safety protocols and mitigation of exporting partners. For Japan, then, the NSR
oil spills and accidents will also grow as the could spell a boon in terms of diversifying its energy
volume of traffic increases. � 35 The most likely mix, in part, due to its large northern ports in
scenario for the NSR is that it will be dominated Hokkaido. The business community is finally seeing
by transport of oil and gas instead of cargo ships. the potential of the Arctic. Indeed, Japan received
Indeed the energy sector stands to profit from use its first tranche of LNG via the Arctic from
of the NSR, as Asian LNG markets are best Norway Snohvit LNG project in Hammerfest. It
s
positioned for European exporters. Japan can take arrived in Kitakyushu City on December 5, 2012. �46
advantage of being a hub port due to its close Thus, Japan domestic energy security is a major
s
proximity to the Bering Strait. �36 driver in its attraction to the Arctic as it seeks to
diversify its supplies and suppliers.
0ii �
Energy
000Japan energy imports surged in the wake of 000With this aim in mind, Japan Oil, Gas and Metals
s
the Fukushima crisis in March 2011. The nuclear National Corporation�JOGMEC �, an independent
plant meltdown led to the shutdown of the nation
s administrative agency tendered a bid in 2 0 1 1 for
48 reactors. � 37 Japan nuclear industry once the right to develop an oil field off the coast of
s
supplied one-third of the nation power, with Greenland. On December 2 4, 2 0 1 3, JOGMEC was
s
pl ans to i ncrease i t up to 50� by 2030. � 38 awarded this right. �47 JOGMEC has teamed up
2014.3 Vol.48 No.2 44
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JAPAN AND THE ARCTIC�NOT SO POLES APART
wi th INPEX, JX, JAPEX and Mi tsui Oi l ConocoPhillips and the U.S. Department of Energy
Exploration to explore two blocks of total 5,0 0 0 conducted successful tests off Alaska's North Slope
square kilometers. �48 It is a joint project with for the extraction of natural gas from methane
Chevron and Shell. In addition, JOGMEC and hydrates. �49
4. CONCLUSION
0In a nexus of business interests combining with Japan and Russia are moving closer to one another in
government aims, MOFA appointed Masuo Nishibayashi earnest. In early February 2014 Russian President
as Ambassador to the Arctic in March 2 0 1 3. �50 Amb. Vladimir Putin and Japanese Prime Minister Shinzo Abe
Nishibayashi is only one of two specially appointed met. This was the fifth high-level meeting between the
from Asia. The second is Kemal Siddique from two countries in less than a year. Russia s foray into
Singapore. The Japanese position is a newly-created Asia is for diplomatic purposes and for securing a
post, which speaks to Japan
s attempts to demonstrate diversified energy client base. Closer ties to Japan would
its commitment to the Arctic. �51 Amb. Nishibayashi ensure Russia leverage in Asian relations before China
s
states that i t i s necessary f or Japan to be ascendancy is cemented. As for energy, China is Russia
s
 appropriately involved in Arctic discussions. He biggest Asian customer. Should Japan also become a
continues� ice is melting and this means ships Russian customer, Russia could use energy both as a
 The
will be able to pass through. We have to see if this is diplomatic and commodity bargaining chip. �57 Russia
s
�52
commercially viable. East Asian customer base would be solidified.
0The advantages for Japan lie in resources, shipping
0Japan will need this engagement with the Arctic routes, and diplomacy. Japan has already scored a plus
Council as it strives to secure diverse energy resources. in resources. In May 2013, INPEX Corporation secured
The Arctic can provide that for Japan. Its diplomatic a partnership with Rosneft to explore two Arctic oil
contacts with Nordic and Baltic nations will ensure its fields. �58 In terms of diplomacy and alliances, Russia lent
involvement in developing the riches of the Arctic. � 5 3 its weight to support Japan
s bid to become a permanent
Japan has also established bilateral relations with observer in the Arctic Council, ignoring China. Moscow
Finland to promote development of the Arctic. �54 also supported Tokyo application to hold the 2020
s
Olympic Games.
0Japan
s open relations with the Arctic nations will put 0Although China and Japan are currently involved in
i t i n good stead i n terms of energy resource escalating spats in the East China Sea, it should be
development. In particular, talks with Russia could result noted that while Moscow and Tokyo are warming to
in ameliorating tensions over the Kuril Island, which each other, neither would overtly do something to mar
have prevented Russia and Japan from signing a peace their relations with Beijing. In spite of recent heated
treaty formally ending WW II hostilities. �55 Another rhetoric in Sino-Japanese relations, Prime Minister Abe
reason for their cooperation is to compete with China. �56 reiterated that the two countries could never clash. We
�59
0China
s assertive policies in the Arctic notwithstanding, must not let that happen.
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< Łl�0ć�Ź� >
�1� http://www.arctic-council.org/index.php/en/about-us/arctic-council/history
�2� Waldie, Paul, Arctic Council seeks balance as commerce beckons in the Far North, The Globe and Mail,
October 16, 2013, accessed at http://www.theglobeandmail.com/report-on-business/looking-up-the-far-norths-
global-appeal/article14898080/
�3� Emmerson, Charles,
 The Cold Rush� Attraction of the North Pole, Chatham House, The World Today, Volume
69, Number 7, accessed at hhttp://www.chathamhouse.org/sites/default/files/public/The%20World%20
Today/2013/AugSep/WT0413Emmerson.pdf
�4� Byers, Michael, Great Powers Shall Not in the Arctic Clash, Global Brief, November 11, 2013, accessed at
http://globalbrief.ca/blog/2013/11/11/great-powers-shall/
�5� http://www.arctic-council.org/index.php/en/about-us/arctic-council/observers. The European Union also applied
as a permanent observer, but its application is being upheld due to the EU's dispute with Canada over an EU ban
on trade in seal products.
�6� Jegorova, Natalja,
 Regionalisation and Globalisation: The Case of the Arctic, Arctic Yearbook 2012, accessed at
http://www.arcticyearbook.com/images/Articles_2013/JEGOROVA� 20AY13� 20FINAL.pdf, p. 125
�7� Jakobson, Linda, Northeast Asia Turns Its Attention to the Arctic, NBR Analysis Brief, December 17, 2012,
accessed at http://nbr.org/publications/analysis/pdf/Brief/121712_Jakobson_ArcticCouncil.pdf
�8� K�pyl�, Juha and Harri Mikkola,
 The Global Arctic�The Growing Arctic Interests of Russia, China, the United
States and the European Union, November 8, 2013, Finnish Institute of International Affairs�FIAA �, accessed
at http://www.isn.ethz.ch/layout/set/print/content/view/full/24620?lng=en&id=172671
�9� Wilson, Page, Asia Eyes the Arctic, The Diplomat, August 26, 2013, accessed at http://thediplomat.
com/2013/08/asia-eyes-the-arctic/
�10�Emmerson, Charles, Glada Lahn, Arctic Opening� Opportunity and Risk in the High North, http://www.
chathamhouse.org/sites/default/files/public/Research/Energy,%20Environment%20and%20
Development/0412arctic.pdf, p. 8
�11�Humpert, Malte, and Andreas Raspotnik,
 The Future of Arctic Shipping Along the Transpolar Sea Route, The
Arctic Yearbook 2012, accessed at http://arcticyearbook.com/images/Articles_2012/Humpert_and_Raspotnik.
pdf, p. 299
�12�The subject of the Arctic
s oil and gas potential was explored in an earlier paper. The numbers are based upon
USGS, July 23, 2008, http://www.usgs.gov/newsroom/article.asp?ID=1980&from=rss_home
�13�USGS, http://pubs.usgs.gov/fs/2008/3049/fs2008-3049.pdf, p. 4
�14�Simon, Bernard, The Arctic� Through icy waters, Financial Times, August 18, 2011, accessed at http://
www.ft.com/cms/s/2/7f2c025e-c731-11e0-a9ef-00144feabdc0.html#axzz2sw2Qftar
�15�Fouche, Gwladys,
 Oil firms must speed up efforts on Arctic safety  Norway watchdog, Reuters, November 21,
2013, accessed at http: //uk. reuters. com/article/2013/11/21/norway-exploration-safety-
idUKL5N0J53YR20131121. The safety watchdog is the Petroleum Safety Authority Norway.
�16�Manicom, James and Whitney Lackenbauer, East Asian States, The Arctic Council and International Relations
in the Arctic, CIGI Policy Brief No.26, accessed at http://www.cigionline.org/sites/default/files/no26.pdf, p. 5
�17�The article was cited by Jakobosn, Linda and Syong-Hong Lee, Northeast Asian States Interests in the
The
Arctic and Possible Cooperation with the Kingdom of Denmark, SIPRI, April 2013, accessed at http://www.
sipri.org/research/security/arctic/arcticpublications/NEAsia-Arctic%20130415%20full.pdf, p. 19
�18�Ibid.
�19�Tonami, Aki and Stewart Watters, Japan Arctic Policy� The Sum of Many Parts, Arctic Yearbook 2012,
s
accessed at http://www.arcticyearbook.com/images/Articles_2012/Tonami_and_Watters.pdf, p. 93
�20�Tulupov, Dmitry,
 Towards The Arctic Ocean through the Kuril Islands, Russian International Affairs Council,
2014.3 Vol.48 No.2 46
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April 15, 2013, accessed at http://russiancouncil.ru/en/inner/?id_4=1711#top
�21�Tonami, A. and Watters, S., p. 95
�22�Tonami, A. and Watters, S., p. 96
�23�Ministry of Foreign Affairs of Japan.�2010 �. Launching of the "Arctic Task Force�ATF �".;�Press Release=�
accessed at http://www.mofa.go.jp/announce/announce/2010/9/0902_01.html
�24�Tulupov, C.
�25�Tonami, A. and Watters, S., p. 94
�26�Jakobson, L. and Lee, S., pp. 20-23
�27�Toriumi, Shigeki,
 The Potential of the Northern Sea Route, Yomiuri Shimbun, February 28, 2011, accessed at
http://www.yomiuri.co.jp/adv/chuo/dy/opinion/20110228.htm
�28�Matsuo, Ichiro and Takashi Kida, Northern Sea Route heats up between Europe, East Asia, Asahi Shimbun,
August 21, 2012, accessed at http://ajw.asahi.com/article/economy/business/AJ201208210040
�29�Rodova, Nadia, Russia Northern Sea Route� Global Implications, Platts Commodity News, September 26,
s
2013, accessed at http://www.platts.com/news-feature/2013/oil/euro-nsr/index
�30�Yep, Eric, Energy Companies Try Arctic Shipping Shortcut Between Europe and Asia, The Wall Street
Journal, August 21, 2013, accessed at http://online.wsj.com/news/articles/SB10001424127887324619504579026031
203525734
�31�Rodova, N. and Yep, E.
�32�Toriumi, S.
�33�Jakobson, L. and Lee, S.
�34�Maersk: Arctic Shipping "Not a Short-Term Opportunity", Ship and Bunker News, October 11, 2013, accessed at
http://shipandbunker.com/news/world/441225-maersk-arctic-shipping-not-a-short-term-opportunity
�35�Chernov, Vitaly and Nadezhda Malysheva, IMO Secretary-General Koji Sekimizu� the forthcoming five
 In
years, the Northern Sea Route will be the main shipping lane for navigation in the Arctic , Portnews IAA,
October 18, 2013, accessed at http://en.portnews.ru/comments/1691/
�36�Toriumi, S.
�37�Reynolds, Isabel and Takashi Hirokawa, s Clout in Japan Nuclear Debate, Bloomberg
 Hosokawa Targets Tokyo
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�44�See No. 39.
�45�Toriumi, S
47 ówąl�0)Y6qŹ0ą0�0Ó0�0�0
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�46�Motomura, Masumi, s Role, JIIA, 2012 Research Project Outcome�
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�48�See No.47.
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 My rival s rival, The Arctic Journal, February 12, 2014, accessed at http://arcticjournal.com/
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�59�McGwin, K.
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2014.3 Vol.48 No.2 48