182 Propellants, Explosives, Pyrotechnics 24, 182Ä…188 (1999)
Analysis of Post Detonation Products of Different Explosive
Charges
Fred Volk and Fritz Schedlbauer
Fraunhofer-Institut fur Chemische Technologie (ICT), D-76327 P®nztal-Berghausen (Germany)
È
 Â
Analyse der Detonationsprodukte von verschiedenen Explosiv- Analyse des produits de detonation de differentes charges explo-
stofŻadungen sives
 Á
SprengstofŻadungen mit TNT, Comp. B, PBXN-106, TNT=AN=Al, On a fait detoner des charges explosives a base de TNT, Comp.B,
Á Â
Comp.B=Al und PBX mit Polyurethanbindern, sowie Sprengstoffe PBXN-106, TNT=AN=Al, Comp.B=Al et PBX a liants polyurethane,
 Â
bestehend aus RDX=Al wurden in einem Sprengkessel von 1,5 m3 ainsi que les explosifs composes de RDX=Al dans une cuve de deto-
È Á Â
Inhalt unter Argonatmosphare zur Detonation gebracht. Die dabei nation de 1,5 m3 dans une atmosphere d'argon. Les produits de reac-
È Â Â Â Â Á
gebildeten gasformigen und kondensierten Reaktionsprodukte wurden tion gazeux et solides ainsi formes ont ete analyses quantitativement a
 Â
mit Hilfe von Massenspektrometrie und anderen Analysenmethoden l'aide de la spectrometrie de masse et d'autres methodes d'analyse. La
È Â Â Â Â Á
quantitativ bestimmt. Die Detonationswarme wurde aus der Bil- chaleur de detonation a ete calculee a partir de la chaleur de formation
È Â
dungswarme der Produkte und den in der Sprengladung enthaltenen des produits et des composants presents dans la charge explosive. La
    Â
Komponenten berechnet. Die beschriebene Methode eignet sich zur methode decrite est adaptee pour etudier le comportement de reaction
Bestimmung des Reaktionsverhaltens von Komponenten, die sich in de composants dans des charges explosives peu sensibles.
wenig emp®ndlichen Sprengladungen be®nden.
Summary 2. Aim of the Investigation
High explosive charges containing TNT, Comp. B, PBXN-106,
The aim of the investigation was to analyze the detonation
TNT=TATB and the aluminium containing charges TNT=AN=Al,
products of the following cast high explosives:
Comp. B=Al and a PBX high explosive with polyurethane binder,
RDX, AP and Al have been initiated in a containment of 1.5 m3 in
TNT
argon atmosphere. The gaseous and solid products were analyzed by
Composition B
mass spectrometry and other techniques. From the reaction products,
PBXN-106
the completeness of the Al reaction under different conditions was
evaluated. The heat of detonation was calculated from the heat of
50% TNT=50% TATB
formation of the products and the components of the explosive char-
50% TNT=25% AN=25% Al
ges. The method described is suitable for studying the reaction beha-
75% Composition B=25% Al
vior of components in composite explosives, especially of less
PBX containing PU binder, RDX, ammonium perchlorate
sensitive high explosives.
(AP), metrioltrinitrate (MTN) and 27% Al
In this connection it was intended to ®nd out how complete
aluminium reacts under different conditions.
1. Introduction
The energy output released during the detonation reaction
of high explosives (HE) depends on several parameters. The 3. Experiments
most important are:
A containment of stainless steel of a volume of 1.5 m3 was
energy content of the charge
used. It could be evacuated in order to replace air by an inert
grain size of the components, especially of composite
atmosphere such as argon(1Ä…7). The cylindrical explosive
high explosives
charges with a mass of about 300 g were initiated by an
conditions of detonation reactions, i.e. use of con®ned or
initiation chain, consisting of a blasting cap no. 8 of Dynamit
uncon®ned charges
Nobel AG, a cylindrical RDX booster of 10 g and an
atmospheric conditions: air, inert atmosphere (argon), or
additional booster (18 g) from an explosive foil having the
vacuum
same diameter as the explosive charge.
conditions of initiation, mass and geometry of the booster
After initiating the explosive, which was usually done in
How these parameters inŻuence the energy output is being argon atmosphere to prevent a secondary reaction between
evaluated by using a containment (detonation vessel) in air and the reaction products, gas samples were taken for
which the high explosive charges are initiated. By analyzing measuring the NO content using a chemiluminescence
the gaseous and condensed reaction products, the heat analyzer. With additional samples, ®lled in evacuated glass
output as well as the completeness of the reaction can be vessels, a mass spectrometric analysis of the gaseous reaction
determined. products was performed.
# WILEY-VCH Verlag GmbH, D-69451 Weinheim, 1999 0721-3115/99/0306Ä…0155 $17.50‡:50=0
Propellants, Explosives, Pyrotechnics 24, 182Ä…188 (1999) Analysis of Post Detonation Products of Different Explosive Charges 183
Finally, the containment was opened to take samples for then we are able to calculate the amount of water vapour
analyzing the solid residue, consisting mostly of humid soot, and the amount of solid carbon formed during the detona-
Al2O3 or non reacted aluminium. tion process. For this calculation we established a computer
program, whose input consisted of the above mentioned
analytical results (a, b and c) and of the stoichiometric
composition of the complete unreacted explosive charge
including the boosters. By comparing the mass balance, it is
4. Evaluation of the Results
possible to obtain the complete composition of the reaction
products. Beyond that we can calculate the heat of deto-
Most of the gaseous reaction products like H2, N2, NO,
nation as the difference of the heat of formation of the
N2O, CO, CO2, HCN, and CH4 can be analyzed quantita- products and the unreacted explosive charge. Additionally,
tively by mass spectrometry, but not the water vapour. In
the freeze-out temperature of the water gas reaction is
order to ®nd out the amount of water, we calculated it as the
evaluated by calculating the equilibrium constant, using the
difference of the hydrogen balance between the stoichio- partial pressures:
metric and the analyzed values. The same was done to
PCO PH O
2
evaluate the amount of free carbon which was formed KpT Ä… ˆ
PCO PH
2 2
during the detonation reaction. The amount of unreacted
aluminium (Al) was analyzed in all cases by measuring the
hydrogen content of the reaction
Al ‡ 3 HCl ! AlCl3 ‡ 1:5H2 "
5. Results
For this measurement, a dried sample of the residue was
used. To determine the amounts of C, H, N in the soot, an 5.1 Reaction Products of Composition B
elemental analysis was carried out.
Having the following values: As an example, the results for Composition B are con-
tained in Table 1 as follows. Composition B consists of
(a) of the gaseous reaction products analyzed by mass
59.5% RDX, 39.5% TNT and 1% wax:
spectrometry: H2, CH4, CO, CO2, N2, NO, HCN,
(b) of the elemental analysis of the soot: %C, %H, %N, Mass of explosive charge
(c) of the experimentally determined amount of unreacted Mass of the boosters
aluminium, Composition of the charge
Table 1. Example for the Evaluation of the Complete Detonation Products and the Heat of Detonation of Composition B
No. 34=30 Composition B
Explosive Mass: 301.0 g Explosive Foil: 17.5 g RDX Booster: 10.0 g Total Mass: 328.5 g
Composition: 57.563% RDX=0.916% wax=36.193% TNT=5.327% Explosive Foil
Heat of formation: 39.8 kJ=kg Oxygen balance: 43.62%
Sum formula: C 2.0519 O 2.6977 N 2.1083 H 2.6409
Sum formula soot: C 1.0000 O 0.0000 N 0.0533 H 0.0713
[mol%] Analysis Without NH3 With NH3 [mol=kg]
H2 12.05 7.38 0.00 3.23
CH4 0.28 0.17 0.00 0.08
CO 33.49 20.51 0.00 8.99
CO2 15.18 9.29 0.00 4.08
N2 38.55 23.60 0.00 10.35
NO 0.09 0.06 0.00 0.02
HCN 0.37 0.23 0.00 1.10
H2O 21.87 0.00 9.59
Soot 16.90 0.00 7.41
Kp (T) Watergas: 6.540
Hdet [kJ=kg]: 5002.3
mol=kg: Total: 43.84 Gas: 36.44 Condensed: 7.41
Comparison of mass balance:
Theory Without NH3 With NH3
N=C 1.0275 1.0275 0.0000
N=H 0.7983 0.7983 0.0000
N=O 0.7815 0.7930 0.0000
Theoretical amount of carbon in residue: 29.0 g ˆ 35.9% of carbon
184 F. Volk and F. Schedlbauer Propellants, Explosives, Pyrotechnics 24, 182Ä…188 (1999)
Heat of formation of the charge and of the boosters On the other hand, column 4 of Table 3 shows the
Oxygen balance completely different reaction products of an uncon®ned
Sum formula of the explosive charge including the TNT sample of Ornellas after the reaction in the detonation
boosters calorimeter. There is a low content of solid carbon, H2O and
Sum formula of the soot CO2 and a large amount of H2 and CO.
Mass spectrometric analysis of the reaction gas without
water vapour
Complete reaction products including water vapour, solid 5.3 Reaction Products of Composition B Compared with
carbon etc., in mol% and mol=kg and of PBXN-106 and TNT
Heat of detonation ( DHDET), or more correctly, the
enthalpy of detonation In order to ®nd out how differently oxygen balances and
Water gas equilibrium constant KpTą energy outputs inŻuence the composition of the detonation
Amount of carbon in the residue products, we compare the results of Composition B, TNT and
PBXN-106, see Table 4.
The freeze-out temperature of the water gas reaction
PBXN-106 exhibits a higher RDX content (75%) than
products of Composition B is 2680 K, which corresponds
Composition B and contains additionally the energetic
to an equilibrium constant KpT Ä… ˆ6:54.
plasticizer Bis-dinitropropylacetal=formal (50=50). In con-
trast to Composition B and TNT, PBXN-106 was con®ned to
a glass tube of 9 mm thickness. Therefore, the comparison
5.2 Reaction Products of TNT
with Composition B and with TNT is limited.
It can be seen in Table 4, that the oxygen balance and the
Two charges without con®nement consisting of about
heat of detonation increase from TNT, Composition B to
300 g TNT and 28 g or 29 g of high explosive booster were
PBXN-106. In the same direction, the formation of carbon
initiated in argon atmosphere. The results are shown in Table
decreases, whereas the gas formation increases. With the
2. The calculated heat of detonation is 4320 J=g in sample no.
higher energy output also the amount of H2O increases.
28=30 and 4193 J=g in sample 29=30. The carbon content in
the residue is 55.7% resp. 56.8%, related to the total carbon
content of the charge. The gas formation is 30.3 mol=kg in the
5.4 Reaction Products of TNT=TATB
one and 30.4 mol=kg in the other case. Even if we had no
con®nement, the carbon formation and the formation of our
Table 5 shows the detonation products of two shots of a
gaseous reaction products is similar to that published by
cast mix containing 50% TNT and 50% TATB. The reprodu-
Ornellas(3), who analyzed the reaction products which had
cibility of the experiments is good, both with and without
been formed in a detonation calorimeter from explosive
NH3 formation.
samples of 22 g and 26 g TNT, see Table 3. Our uncon®ned
The formation of NH3 was taken into account because we
charges of 329 g including the booster led to a composition of
found small amounts of NH3 by mass spectrometry. As most
detonation products which is very similar to that formed
of the NH3 had been absorbed by the humid soot, it was not
under the heavy con®nement of a cylinder of gold or of
possible to analyze the complete NH3 content. Therefore we
alumina (Al2O3). We assume that 0.1 MPa of argon reacts in
admitted NH3 formation in the computer program as long as
the 1.5 m3 containment like a con®nement.
the mass balance of the gas analysis was correct. This was the
case in shot no. 59 with 2.54 mol% NH3 and in shot no. 60
with 4.37 mol% NH3.
Table 2. Detonation Products of Pure TNT (detonated in argon)
It is interesting to see that the formation of HCN was much
Sample No. 28=30 29=30
higher than in the case of TNT and Composition B. By
Charge weight [g] 300=329 301=328 admitting the formation of NH3, the heat of detonation
Oxygen balance [%] 69.6 69.7
decreases because of the lower formation of H2O, which
DHdet [kJ=kg] 4320 4193
produces much more heat than the formation of NH3.
Products [mol%]
H2 3.4 4.4
5.4 Reaction Products of the Explosive Charges
CH4 0.2 0.2
TNT=AN=Al, Comp. B=Al and PB=RDX=AP=Al
CO 17.2 16.6
CO2 9.9 9.8
N2 13.5 13.5
In order to get more information on the completeness of
NO 0.07 0.06
the reaction of Al in cast high explosives with nearly the same
HCN 0.8 0.8
oxygen balance but with different energy output, the detona-
H2O 19.6 18.6
tion products of the two charges
C (s) 35.4 36.1
50% TNTy25% ANy25% Al
C in residue [% of total C]: 55.7 56.8
Gas formation [mol=kg]: 30.3 30.4
and 75% Composition By25% Al
Propellants, Explosives, Pyrotechnics 24, 182Ä…188 (1999) Analysis of Post Detonation Products of Different Explosive Charges 185
Table 3. Heats and Products of Detonation of TNT under Varying Conditions: Comparison between ICT
and LLNL
ICT Detonation Calorimeter Ornellas, LLNL
Sample 28=30
Column 1 2 3 4
Confinement no gold Al2O3 no
Charge: Density [g=cm3] ? 1.533 1.533 1.000
Diameter [mm] 50 12.7 12.7 12.7
Weight TNT [g] 300 22 22 26
Booster [g] 29 ? ? ?
Products [mol%]
H2 3.4 4.3 4.1 20.4
CH4 0.2 0.9 1.0 0.1
CO 17.2 18.5 18.9 53.9
CO2 9.9 11.7 12.5 0.3
N2 13.5 12.3 12.6 11.9
NO 0.07 - 0.01 0.01
HCN 0.8 1.9 0.5 0.3
NH3 ? 1.5 1.8 0.9
H2O 19.6 14.9 13.3 3.4
C(s) 35.4 34.0 35.2 8.8
Hdet [kJ=kg]
Experimental: - 4576 4480 2437
Calc. from products: 4320 4744 4091 2977
have been examined. Besides this, a PBX charge was ana- containing explosive which produces only 7213 kJ=kg,
lyzed, containing 27% Al, but exhibiting a less negative although both charges have nearly the same O2-balance.
oxygen balance and much higher energy: The reason for this difference is the positive heat of for-
mation of RDX, which causes a higher heat of detonation
9% Polybutadiene
than the charge with AN.
15% RDX
The larger heat output of Comp. B=Al may also be the
21% Metrioltrinitrate (MTN)
reason for a more complete reaction of aluminium: 0.7%
28% Ammonium perchlorate (AP)
unreacted Al compared with 9.9% of the charge containing
27% Al
AN.
The results shown in Table 6 indicate that the charge based The PBX charge (sample 73=20), shows an increased heat
on Comp. B=Al exhibits a much higher heat of detonation, of detonation, which is caused by the favourable energetic
8306 kJ=kg, as compared with the ammonium nitrate (AN)
Table 4. Detonation Products of PBXN-106 under Glass Confinement Compared with Comp. B and TNT
without Confinement (detonated in argon)
Sample no. ESB-52(0)3-1 Glass 34=30 29=30
Composition: PBXN-106 Comp. B TNT
Charge weight [g] 329=339 301=328 301=328
O2-balance [%] 34.1 43.6 69.7
Hdet [kJ=kg] 5586 5002 4193
Products [mol%]
H2 5.8 7.4 4.4
CH4 0.7 0.2 0.2
CO 14.2 20.5 16.6
CO2 12.4 9.3 9.8
N2 26.3 23.6 13.5
NO Ð 0.06 0.06
HCN Ð 0.2 0.8
H2O 28.4 21.9 18.5
C(s) 12.3 16.9 36.1
C in residue [% of total C]: 31.0 35.9 56.8
Gas formation [mol=kg]: 36.8 36.4 30.4
186 F. Volk and F. Schedlbauer Propellants, Explosives, Pyrotechnics 24, 182Ä…188 (1999)
Table 5. Detonation Products of 50% TNT=50% TATB (detonated in argon)
Sample 59 60
O2-balance [%] 61.28 61.28
Products [mol%] with NH3 with NH3
H2 5.9 5.7 6.1 5.6
CH4 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.1
CO 18.8 18.0 19.9 18.4
CO2 13.7 13.1 15.4 14.2
N2 18.6 17.9 18.4 17.0
HCN 2.1 2.1 2.3 2.1
NH3 0.0 2.5 0.0 4.4
H2O 16.5 13.4 16.8 11.5
C(s) 24.1 27.1 21.1 26.6
Hdet [kJ=kg] 4134 3703 4365 3619
C in residue [% of total C]: 40.9 44.8 35.9 43.3
Gas formation [mol=kg]: 32.24 32.51
conditions of ammonium perchlorate and metriol trinitrate. 6. Analysis of Carbon Soot
In this case, the Al reaction is nearly complete.
The following tabulation illustrates the different behavior After each shot, the detonation residue in the containment
of the three charges: was collected, dried and analyzed for carbon, hydrogen and
nitrogen by combustion analysis. For comparison, the carbon
Explosive 50% TNT 75% Comp. B PBX with
residue was calculated also via the mass balance. Table 7 lists
Charge 25% AN 25% Al PU, RDX,
25% Al AP, MTN, the results. The content of carbon clearly increases when
27% Al
going from vacuum to 0.05 MPa, 0.1 MPa and 0.2 MPa of
argon as ambient gas. It is also shown that the nitrogen
O2-balance, % 51.8 53 4 38.6
content in the soot increases when the pressure of argon is
Heat of detonation,
kJ=kg 7213 8306 9011
raised. We assume that the formation of gases such as HCN
kcal=kg 1722 1983 2152
and NH3 increases in the same direction. It is suspected that
Unreacted Al, % 9.9 0.7 0.3
the formation of diamonds is also favored by an increased
con®nement(8). The investigation of the carbon soot using
These results clearly indicate that it is not appropriate to
transmission electron microscopy (TEM) and convergent
use AN containing explosives with a high amount of Al.
Table 6. Detonation Products (detonated in argon) and Al Reaction of 50% TNT=25%
AN=25% Al, 75% Comp. B=25% Al, PBX explosive with PU, RDX, AP, MTN and 27% Al
Sample no. 71=20 82=20 73=20
Composition: 50% TNT 75% Comp. B PBX
25% AN 25% Al with RDX, AP,
25% Al 27% Al
O2-balance [%] 51.8 53.4 38.6
Hdet [kJ=kg] 7213 8306 9011
Products [mol%]
H2 6.2 12.5 6.6
CH4 0.06 0.04 0.01
CO 14.7 23.6 10.6
CO2 1.2 0.7 1.7
N2 12.4 21.1 14.0
NO 0.02 0.05 0.06
HCN 0.4 0.6 0.04
H2O 20.9 12.0 29.3
C(s) 30.1 17.9 18.4
Al2O3 11.5 11.4 13.0
Al 2.5 0.2 0.08
HCl Ð Ð 6.2
C in residue [% of total C]: 64.7 41.9 59.8
Unreacted Al [%]: 9.9 0.7 0.3
Gas formation [mol=kg]: 18.5 23.9 22.2
Propellants, Explosives, Pyrotechnics 24, 182Ä…188 (1999) Analysis of Post Detonation Products of Different Explosive Charges 187
Table 7. Analysis of the Residual Soot of the Charges 45% TNT=55%
In the 1.5 m3 containment, the detonation products of 331 g
NQ
and 328.4 g charges were analyzed. The enthalpy of detona-
Sample no. Ar pressure C H N Total Carbon [g]
tion of the NQ-containing charge was 3763 kJ=kg, and that of
[MPa] % % % analyzed calculated
the NTO-containing charge 3843 kJ=kg. In both cases, large
1450=1c Vacuum 87.3 1.0 10.4 5.9 8.1
quantities of carbon soot were formed: 15.9 mol% and
1450=2c 0.05 86.9 1.1 12.0 20.9 24.2
19.8 mol%.
1450=3c 0.1 85.4 1.3 13.3 31.6 26.6
The combustion products have been calculated by using
1450=1b 0.1 82.4 1.7 15.9 31.7 36.6
the ICT-Thermodynamic Code for the conditions of a closed
1450=2b 0.2 73.1 2.4 24.5 36.1 34.6
vessel combustion (2.5 g in 25 cm3), which corresponds to a
1450=3b 0.3 68.9 2.8 28.2 35.6 34.6
loading density of 0.1 g=cm3. From many experiments with
gas chromatographic analyses of the combustion products of
different explosives, we know that the agreement between
beam electron diffraction of three explosive charges consist-
calculation and experiments is very good.
ing of 60% TNT=40% RDX (Comp. B), 50% TNT=50%
By comparing the combustion with the detonation process,
TATB and 50% TNT=50% nitroguanidine (NQ) after deto-
we see very different reaction products:
nating under 0.1 MPa argon has shown that diamond clusters
The detonation leads to much higher concentrations of
and graphitic clusters have been formed(8). The amount of
CO2, H2O and carbon soot, whereas the combustion products
diamonds make up 25% of the soot. This amount is important
exhibit a much higher content of H2, CO, CH4 and only a
when we remember (Table 1) that 301 g of Composition B
small amount of carbon soot.
produced 29 g of carbon soot during the detonation.
The result is that the heat (or enthalpy) of detonation shows
signi®cantly higher values than the heat liberated by the
combustion process. The reason for this can be explained by
the Boudouard-reaction,
7. Comparison between Detonation Products and
Combustion Products
2CO $ CO2 ‡ C; DH ˆ 172:4 kJ
which is very strongly exothermal when forming CO2 and
In order to ®nd out the difference between detonation and
carbon soot from CO. This reaction is typical for detonation
combustion processes, two explosive mixtures with the
processes.
following compositions (Table 8):
On the other side, combustion processes are in most cases
(1) TNT=55% nitroguanidine (NQ) governed by the water gas equilibrium reaction, which is only
(2) 45% TNT=55% 3-Nitro-1,2,4-Triazole-5-one (NTO) a little exothermal:
CO ‡ H2O $ CO2 ‡ H2; DH ˆ 41:0 kJ
have been investigated.
Table 8. Detonation Products and Combustion Products of TNT=NQ and TNT=NTO Charges
Test no. 1450=3c 1475=1
Experim. Calc. Experim. Calc.
(Deton.) (Comb.) (Deton.) (Comb.)
Composition: 45 TNT=55 NQ 45 TNT=55 NTO
Argon pressure (MPa) 0.1 Ð 0.1 Ð
Loading density (g=cm3) Ð 0.1 Ð 0.1
Charge mass (g) 331 Ð 328.4 Ð
O2-balance (%) 47.6 44.7
Hf (kJ=kg) 657 657.4
Reaction products (mol%)
H2 5.0 17.0 3.7 12.2
CH4 0.24 4.6 0.5 2.3
CO 14.3 32.8 15.8 39.8
CO2 10.3 6.1 17.7 7.8
N2 25.6 30.2 25.4 27.5
NO 0.13 Ð 0.1 Ð
HCN 3.6 0.03 1.9 0.02
NH3 4.9 0.2 1.8 0.1
C2H4 0.1 Ð Ð Ð
H2O 20.0 8.9 13.3 6.6
C (s) 15.9 Ð 19.8 3.5
Hdet [kJ=kg] 3763 3313 3843 3321
C in residue [% of total C]: 35.7 Ð 35.6 6.6
Gas formation [mol=kg]: 35.7 39.4 31.4 36.6
188 F. Volk and F. Schedlbauer Propellants, Explosives, Pyrotechnics 24, 182Ä…188 (1999)
(International) on Detonation, July 15Ä…19, 1985, Albuquerque,
8. Conclusion
USA.
(2) F. Volk, ``Detonation Gases and Residues of Composites Explo-
The described blasting vessel method is useful for exam-
sives'', Journal of Energetic Materials 4, 93Ä…113 (1986).
ining large explosive charges. In argon atmosphere, but (3) D. L. Ornellas, ``Calorimetric Determinations of the Heat and
Products of Detonation for Explosives: October 1961 to April
without con®nement, the detonation products of charges of
1982'', Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory UCRL-52821,
about 300 g are comparable to those of heavily con®ned
April 5, 1982, p. 72Ä…78.
small charges which have been initiated in a detonation
(4) F. Volk, F. Schedlbauer, and J. Wagner, ``Detonation Products of
Insensitive Cast High Explosives'' 8th Symposium (International)
calorimeter. The method described is capable of analyzing
on Detonation, July 15Ä…19, 1985, Albuquerque, USA.
the detonation behavior of homogeneous, heterogeneous and
(5) F. Volk and F. Schedlbauer, ``Detonation Products of Less Sen-
especially of insensitive high explosives (IHE).
sitive High Explosives Formed Under Different Pressures of
The completeness of aluminium reaction, the formation of
Argon and in Vacuum'', 9th Symposium (International) on Deto-
nation, August 28Ä…September 1, 1989, Portland, Oregon, USA.
gas and solid residue can be evaluated as well as the heat of
(6) F. Volk and F. Schedlbauer, ``Products of Al Containing Explo-
detonation.
sives Detonated in Argon and Underwater'', 10th Symposium
The investigation has shown that the reaction of alumi-
(International) on Detonation, July 12Ä…16, 1993, Boston, Mass.,
nium depends not only on the oxygen balance of the USA.
(7) F. Volk, ``Detonation Products as a Function of Initiation Strength,
explosive charge but also on the heat output.
Ambient Gas and Binder Systems of Explosive Charges'', Pro-
Finally, the difference between detonation and combustion
pellants, Explosives, Pyrotechnics 21, 155Ä…159 (1996).
processes has been explained.
(8) R. N. Greiner, D. S. Phillips, and D. Johnson, Los Alamos
National Laboratory, and F. Volk, Fraunhofer-lnstitute of Che-
mical Technology (ICT), ``Diamonds in Detonation Soot'', Nature
333, 440Ä…442 (1988).
9. References
(1) F. Volk, H. Bathelt, F. Schedlbauer, and J. Wagner, ``Detonation
Products of Insensitive Cast High Explosives'', 8th Symposium Received April 13, 1999; Ms 26=99)