cluster three
Case Studies
Early Childhood:  Pinch
Elementary School:  Silly Students Middle School:  Study Hall
High School:  Bending the Rules
Module 9: Behavioral Learning Theories
Outline and Learning Goals 160 Assumptions of Behavioral Learning
Theories 161 Classical Conditioning 161 Operant Conditioning 163 Applications: Applied
Behavior Analysis 169 Summary 172 Key Concepts 172 Case Studies: Reflect and Evaluate
173
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C L U S T E R
EARLY CHILDHOOD MIDDLE SCHOOL HIGH SCHOOL
ELEMENTARY SCHOOL
learning theories
Module 10: Social Cognitive Theory
Outline and Learning Goals 175 Assumptions of Social Cognitive
Theory 176 Observational Learning 176 Personal Factors in Learning 179 Summary 184 Key
Concepts 184 Case Studies: Reflect and Evaluate 184
Module 11: Information Processing
Outline and Learning Goals 186 Assumptions of the Information
Processing Approach 187 The Three-stage Model of Information
Processing 187 Applications to Teaching 197 Summary 201 Key Concepts 202 Case Studies:
Reflect and Evaluate 202
3
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152
Prepare:
As you read the case, make notes:
1. WHO are the primary participants in the case? Describe them.
2. WHAT is taking place?
3. WHERE is the case taking place? Is the environment a factor?
4. WHEN is the case taking place? Is the timing a factor?
Miss Rana (RAH-nah) is the head teacher at the local preschool for at-risk children. The preschool is state-funded
and typically includes children ages three to five from lower-SES homes, from single-parent families, and/or with
developmental delays. Arriving early one morning to prepare the art area for a sponge painting activity, Rana begins
setting up space for pairs of children to share art materials. Miss Amber, the assistant teacher, arrives and provides
the list of paired children that she has prepared for the art project.
Rana reads the list and says,  I m glad to see you paired Reagan and Emily for art. Emily has been so reluctant
to participate in art ever since that day when she spilled the paint all over Billy s shoes.
 Yes, Amber replies.  I thought it would be a good idea. Reagan loves art. I just hope she can keep her hands to
herself today.
Reagan, a three-year-old, is one of the youngest children in the preschool. Although Reagan generally is a
well-behaved child, during circle time she has a habit of pinching the children sitting next to her on the rug. Reagan
does not attempt to conceal her mis-behavior and readily admits to it if confronted by her teachers. Rana and Amber
first tried ignoring the behavior, but that only resulted in a number of other children pinching their classmates. They
have also tried telling her to stop pinching the other children and have even removed her from the rug area a few
times, with no result. Recently, they decided to give Reagan a sticker at the end of the day contingent on no
instances of pinching anyone. Stickers typically are used as spe- cial rewards when a child does something that
deserves recognition. Only once during the past three weeks has Reagan earned the sticker every other day
she has pinched at least one child.
Yesterday afternoon,
Rana and Amber discussed the issue
1
Early Childhood
2
Pinch
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again and decided to try yet another strategy. They hope to
 catch Reagan early in circle time, before she has a chance to
pinch, praise her for keeping her hands to herself, and then
every couple of minutes praise Reagan and the other children for
keeping their hands to themselves.
As the children begin to enter the classroom, Rana gives her
usual morning greeting:  Good morning boys and girls!
Emily enters the room and quietly walks to her space along
the wall, where she hangs her coat on the hook and places her
book bag below her name. As Emily sits down at her special spot
on the rug, Amber greets her.  Hello Emily. I sure like the way
you put your things away and sat down. You look ready to begin
this morning.
As usual, Emily does not respond to this praise. However, a
number of other children who were wandering off to inspect the
art supplies quickly scramble to their own special spots on the
rug. Reagan has just sat down, and Rana quickly says,  Reagan,
I like the way you have your hands in your lap look
every-one Reagan is giving a wonderful example of how to sit
with our hands to ourselves during circle time. Reagan s face
clearly displays her pride at being the good example.
Circle time includes doing the calendar and weather,
followed by Amber reading the morning book. Amber holds the
children s attention during the story by asking them to clap each
time they hear the word leaf. The teachers praise Reagan a
number of times along with many of the other children for
sitting with her hands to herself and for clapping along with the
story. After she finishes reading, Amber says,  Yesterday we
read a different story about leaves. How is today s story like that
one? How is it different from the one we read yesterday?
Several children raise their hands to share their ideas. Following
circle time, the children are told who will be their partner for art
that day and are sent to the space designated for them.
Amber stands in front of four pairs of children, while Rana
stands in front of the other four pairs of children.  Eyes up here,
Rana says, as she notices some of the children whispering to
each other. Each teacher holds up the art supplies and
demonstrates how to gently put the leaf-shaped sponge into the
paint tray and then gently place the sponge on their large piece
of paper. Rana tells the children to begin painting and quietly
observes the interactions between Reagan and Emily.
Reagan asks Emily,  Do you want the red paint first?
 Um, you pick, Emily quietly replies.
 Red is my favorite color, says Reagan. When Emily does
not respond, Reagan asks,  What is your favorite color?
Emily answers,  I don t know. I guess pink.
Emily has too much paint on her sponge and gets too much
paint on her paper. Under her breath, she says:  I can t do it.
Rana approaches and offers a few words of encouragement.
Reagan, mimicking the teacher, offers similar comments, such as  I like it too.
The two children continue to talk and share the art supplies.
As Rana walks around the room to provide assistance, she
notices that Reagan and Emily are talking and giggling. She
thinks about how she has never heard Emily giggle during class.
Rana quickly takes the opportunity to encourage Emily:  You
are doing a wonderful job! You are quite a little artist!
Assess
3 1. Why do you think the initial attempts to stop Reagan from pinching were unsuccessful?
2. Do you think the teachers would have reacted the same
way if a boy were pinching other children? Why or why not?
3. Why do you think Amber makes a point of getting the
children s attention when a new activity begins? What might
happen if she failed to do this?
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EARLY CHILDHOOD MIDDLE
SCHOOL HIGH SCHOOL
ELEMENTARY SCHOOL
154
Prepare:
As you read the case, make notes:
1. WHO are the primary participants in the case? Describe them.
2. WHAT is taking place?
3. WHERE is the case taking place? Is the environment a factor?
4. WHEN is the case taking place? Is the timing a factor?
AA idan Lindsay is in his first year of teaching at a small rural school where most students are from
lower- to middle-SES homes. His fourth-grade class has 25 students, with about equal numbers of boys and girls.
Aidan designed his room so that desks are arranged in clusters of three or four, which allows students to work
together on some projects. The students seem to like this arrangement. However, some disruptive behaviors have
occurred throughout the first few weeks of the school year.
Aidan is seeking the assistance of the other fourth-grade teachers, Anna Vargas and Elsa Klendworth. During
their lunch break in the teachers lounge, he asks,  What do the two of you do with a group of three children who do
not seem interested in anything but talking with one another and giving silly answers to questions?
Elsa presses him for more information.  What exactly do you ask of your students, and how do they respond?
 Many times I will show the students how to do something, such as multiplication, on the white board and then
ask them to complete worksheets, Aidan says.  I inform them that they should not copy the work of others in their
group, but I encourage them to ask others for help. This typically works well. I have seen students showing other
students how to complete the problems. However, these three children, Billy, Jason, and Megan, all pretend to help
each other by talking and pointing to the worksheets, but as I walk past they obviously are talking about other things
and typically end up getting little work done. In addition, their laughing and giggling disrupt the other students,
particularly the fourth child in their group, Sara. Of course, given this silly behavior, it is not surprising that Billy,
Jason, Megan, and Sara all received low scores on the math quiz I gave last week.
Silly Students
Elementary School
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B
C
Anna asks,  What have you tried in order to get them back on track?
 Well, of course, I have repeatedly told them to calm down and
get back to work. I have also tried ignoring their laughing and giggling,
but they are just too disruptive to the other children around them. So
yesterday I started taking away their recess time when their work is
not completed, but I don t know yet how well that is going to work,
says Aidan.
 I would suggest that you give them extra time to talk with one
another only if their project is completed, Anna suggests.
Elsa adds,  Yes, I might even begin by telling them that if they can
just be quiet and not disrupt the other children you will give them a few
minutes at the end of the period to talk with one another quietly.
Aidan leaves the teachers lounge somewhat skeptical about
rewarding students for doing what all the other students already are
doing, but he decides to try these suggestions because Elsa and Anna
have been teaching much longer than he has and have been very
supportive and helpful over the past several weeks.
As the children enter the classroom after their lunch and recess
time, Aidan asks them to sit in their seats. On the white board he
demonstrates the day s lesson on multiplication. As the children begin
working in their groups, he walks over to the table where Billy, Jason,
Megan, and Sara are working.
 I have a new idea, Aidan says.  If the three of you can work
quietly for the next ten minutes while others are also trying to complete
their math worksheets, I will give you three minutes to talk with one
another. You can use quiet voices to help one another, but you need
to stay focused on the math work. Sound good?
The following week at lunch in the teachers lounge, Elsa asks,
 So, how is that problem with your group of silly students going?
 Oh, your suggestions worked like a charm. The three
misbehaving students are paying more attention and actually helping
one another finish their work so they have time to talk together.
However, now the problem is the fourth student in that group, Sara.
She has become increasingly frustrated that the other students finish
before her. Many times I hear her say  I can t do it or  This is too hard.
She even went so far as to throw her pencil down on the table and
start crying.
 I have tried to explain to her that she does good work and should
ask for help if she needs it, but Sara insists that she is not good at
math. Do you have any suggestions? asks Aidan.
 What if you make the three minutes contingent on all four
students completing the assignment? Elsa suggests.  Then the
students will be more interested in helping Sara, and Sara will not
need to ask for their help.
 Yes, Anna agrees.  I would also suggest that you take as many
opportunities as possible to prove to Sara that she is doing well. You
can continue to tell her that she is doing well, but you should also
remind her of previous work she has completed well maybe even
start a bulletin board where you can spotlight the students work.
1. Do you think having fourth-grade students  help each other is a good idea? Why or why not?
2. Do you think Aidan s reliance on the other teachers is a sign of incompetence? Why or why not?
3. If you were the teacher in this classroom, what strategies would
you use to help the three disruptive students focus on their
schoolwork?
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EARLY CHILDHOOD MIDDLE
SCHOOL HIGH SCHOOL
ELEMENTARY SCHOOL
Assess
156
Prepare:
As you read the case, make notes:
1. WHO are the primary participants in the case?
Describe them.
2. WHAT is taking place?
3. WHERE is the case taking place? Is the environment
a factor?
4. WHEN is the case taking place? Is the timing a factor?
Milos Havel is one of three seventh-grade teachers at a middle school in a small but ethnically diverse
city. The three seventh-grade teachers cover reading and social studies in their own  homeroom classes,
but each one instructs all the seventh graders in one subject area (math, English, or science). Milos s
specialty is English.
Milos is worried about Jamie, a student in his homeroom class.
Jamie appears to be a very bright child when he applies himself. He
readily participates in class by explaining difficult concepts and
providing good examples of the material, particularly during his
favorite subject, social studies. His difficulties appear to be in the
sixth-period mathematics class. Although Gladys DeBrick does not
complain about Jamie s compliance in her class, his academic
performance is weak. He rarely finishes his homework on time and
appears to have fallen behind in the subject. For example, he lacks
an understanding of basic mathematical principles taught the
previous year in sixth grade.
During their weekly Thursday morning meeting, the three
seventh-grade teachers discuss their students performance. It turns
out that Gladys s student Jasamine is having problems completing
her English assignments for Milos s sixth period. Much like Jamie,
Jasamine does not have many behavioral problems within the
classroom. Nor does she appear to struggle with the content of
Milos s English class. Nevertheless, Jasamine typically doesn t have
the homework completed.
Milos and Gladys develop a plan. Milos will help Jamie with his
math homework during the study hall period immediately following
Jamie s sixth-period math class. In turn, Gladys will help Jasamine
with her English homework during the study hall period immediately
following Jasamine s sixth-period English class. Although both need
to attend to other students during the study hall period, Milos and
Gladys will try to give Jamie and Jasamine as much extra help with
homework as possible.
Several issues arise while trying to implement this plan with
Jamie. On the first day, Milos walks by Jamie s desk and states,  I
will be around to help you with your mathematics homework, so take
out the assignment and get started.
Jamie replies,  I thought we could talk about the social studies
lesson you gave today, like we usually do.
 No, I think your time is much better spent completing your math
homework while you are here and have my help available to you,
says Milos.
 I don t think I have the worksheets Ms. DeBrick gave us to
complete. I guess I will have to do them tomorrow. So we can
discuss social studies, right? asks Jamie.
This pattern of forgetting the homework assignment and
diverting the conversation to social studies continues for several
days. Finally, Milos tells Jamie that he will not discuss social studies
with him during study hall until his math homework is complete. After
only one day of Milos s refusing to talk with him about social studies,
Jamie begins to bring his math homework. Although he struggles with
completing the problems, he puts forth effort to complete the
assignments so he will have a few extra minutes at the end of the
class study hall period to discuss social studies with Milos.
In Gladys s homeroom, the plan works wonderfully from the
start. Jasamine seems to enjoy the extra attention she receives in
completing her English assignments. Gladys notices that Jasamine
does not seem to have difficulty completing the work once she has
Middle School
Study Hall
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B
+
given Jasamine an example or two to get her started. Gladys decides
to pair Jasamine with a student who excels in English, so that Gladys
is able to spend her time helping the other children and preparing her
lessons for the next day.
1. Why do you think the initial plan to get Jamie to complete his
math homework during study hall was unsuccessful? Why did the
same plan work so well for Jasamine s English homework?
2. Do you think that Gladys s plan to have another student help
Jasamine will be as effective? Why or why not? Would this strategy
work for Jamie?
3. How might memory play an important role in completing math
problems for Gladys s class? How might memory be important for
completing assignments for Milos s English class?
Assess
EARLY CHILDHOOD MIDDLE
SCHOOL HIGH SCHOOL
ELEMENTARY SCHOOL
%
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158
Prepare:
As you read the case, make notes:
1. WHO are the primary participants in the case?
Describe them.
2. WHAT is taking place?
3. WHERE is the case taking place? Is the environment
a factor?
4. WHEN is the case taking place? Is the timing a factor?
D an Hardy is an African-American teacher of U.S. history, the only subject he has taught during
his five years at a high school in an upper socioeconomic community. The students are highly motivated
to do well and to continue their education at the top universities in the state. Dan is well liked by most of
his students. He spends a lot of class time providing examples of how to relate concepts in history to
current events. He also uses group work during class, such as debating a controversial historical issue
and predicting what would have happened if a particular event had not occurred. Dan assigns homework
that typically involves thinking and writing about issues discussed during class. Because his assignments
are thought-provoking and because most of his students are eager to learn, Dan rarely has problems with
students completing the assignments.
At the beginning of Dan s third class period, he asks students to
pass their homework forward to the front person in each row. As he
reaches the third row, he notices that Jason s assignment is missing
from the stack. This is the fourth day in the past two weeks that his
assignment has not been completed. Jason was told after missing his
last assignment that one more incomplete grade would earn him a
trip to detention.
After class Dan asks Jason to stay for a minute. Dan asks,  Why
didn t you turn in your homework assignment today?
 I don t know, Jason answers.  I guess I forgot about it, Mr. Hardy.
Dan wonders whether he really forgot about it or instead was
having difficulty understanding the material or organizing his
thoughts.  Well, you will need to spend one hour in detention after
school today to complete the missed work. Please be sure to stop by
the office and notify your parents that you will be home late today,
Dan requests.
 I can t stay today I have basketball practice, Jason replies.  If
I miss practice, I will have to miss the game Friday night.
 Well, I warned you after your last missed homework assignment
that you would be sent to detention if you missed another
assignment, Dan states.  You were aware of this classroom rule. I
suggest you spend your hour today completing your missing
assignments for the class.
When the last bell rings at the end of the day, Jason walks to
Coach Gil Hanson s office and tells him why he will not be at
basketball practice. Gil, upset that Jason s detention would mean
facing the school s archrival without a star player, offers to discuss
the issue with Jason s teacher and with the principal, Alice Krug.
In the principal s office, the coach makes his case to Dan and
Alice.  I understand that Jason has missed some assignments in
history class and is now in detention, he says.  As a result, he is
missing basketball practice today and, by the rules, cannot play in
Friday night s game. Is there something we can work out as a
compromise?
Alice turns to Dan and says formally,  What is your class rule
about completing assignments and detention?
 The rule is four incompletes result in detention until the student
no longer has four incompletes. I rarely need to enforce this rule, but
Jason is missing four assignments, Dan explains.  I gave him a
warning when he had missed three assignments, but he came to
class again today without his homework.
High School
Bending the Rules
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EARLY CHILDHOOD MIDDLE
SCHOOL HIGH SCHOOL
ELEMENTARY SCHOOL
Assess
 Can t you make an exception in this case? Gil suggests.  Jason
is overall a good student and an excellent athlete.
Alice interjects,  I believe that a rule is a rule. If this is the system
that Dan has set up for his class, then we must all support his efforts.
Jason will not be at practice and hence cannot play in the game Friday
night.
 Well, the no practice no game rule is my own team rule, not a
school rule. I am willing to bend the rule in this case. The rule has
been bent before for cases of illness and family vacations, Gil replies.
 I was not aware of that, the principal says.  I suggest that you
change the rule to better reflect the practice. However, you and I can
discuss this issue at a later date, in private.
Back in detention, Jason begins to gather his notes for the
assignments he did not complete during the past few weeks. He
quickly realizes that he has not taken good notes and cannot
remember clearly Dan s demonstration of how to complete the
assignment. Nor has he really participated with his classmates during
the group work. Jason remembers that he did not do well in history
during middle school because he wasn t good at keeping dates and
facts straight.
1. Was the strategy of placing Jason in detention helpful to Jason? Why or why not?
2. Do you think the teachers would have reacted the same way if a
girl had been experiencing the same problems with homework and
missing an extracurricular event? Why or why not?
3. What strategies would you use to help you remember dates and
facts in history, and what types of skills or strategies would you
need to complete Dan s homework assignments?
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