Management and Managers
Management
 The process of getting things done efficiently and effectively through and with people.
Organizational performance
 Measures how efficiently and effectively managers use resources to achieve goals and
satisfy customers.
Efficiency
 Measure of how well or how productively resources are used.
Effectiveness
 Measure of appropriateness of the goals an organization is pursuing and of the degree to
which organization achieves the goals.
Organization
 A systematic arrangement of people brought together to accomplish some specific goals.
 A collectivity of people engaged in a systematic effort to produce a good or an activity.
Characteristics of an organization
 purpose
 people
 structure
Managerial functions
 planning (choose goals)
 organizing (working together)
 leading (coordinate)
 controlling (monitor & measure)
Management compromises planning, organizing, leading, and controlling of resources to
achieve organizational goals effectively and efficiently
Planning
 Identifying and selecting appropriate goals ( which goals should be persued? How should
the goal be achieved? How should the resources be allocated?)
Organizing
 Structuring working relationships in a way that allow organizational members to work
together to achieve organizational goals.
Leading
 motivating; articulating a clear vision and energizing and enabling organization members to
understand the part they play in achieving organizational goals.
 Leadership involves a manager using power, influence, vision, persuasion, and
communication skills.
 The outcome of leading function is high level of motivation and commitment from
employees to organization.
Controlling
 Evaluating of how well an organization is achieving its goals and taking action to maintain
or improve performance.
 Managers monitor individuals, departments, and the organization to determine whether
organization desired performance has been reached
 the outcome of controlling function is accurate measurement of performance and regulation
of efficiency and effectiveness
Managers
 are individuals who are responsible for completing tasks, require the supervision of other
members or organizational resources
Resources
 human
 material
 financial
 technological/informational
 natural
Management levels
 Top managers
 Middle managers
 First line managers
Managerial roles
 Interpersonal [Figurehead role, Leader role, Liaison role]
 Informational []Monitor role, Disseminator role, Spokesman role]
 Decisional [Entrepreneur role, Disturbance handler role, Resource allocator role, Negotiator]
Managerial skills
 Conceptual skills
 Human skills
 Technical skills
These skills are enhanced through formal training, reading, and practice.
Environment
Organizational environment
 those forces outside its boundaries, that can impact it
 all elements residing outside of an organization's boundary that have the potential to affect
some or all of the activities occurring in the organization.
Opportunities
 openings for managers to enhance revenues and or open markets
Threats
 issues that can harm an organization
Environmental dimensions
 munificence
 complexity
 concentration
 dynamism
 turbulence
 consensus
Task environment
 Suppliers & distributors  manager buy products from global suppliers or make items
abroad and supply themselves. Each country or a brand often has a unique system of
distribution
 Customers & competitors  formerly district national markets are merging into a huge
global market. Managers often must customize products to fit the culture. Global
competitors present new threats.
General environment
 Economical forces  effect the national economy and the organization;
 Technological forces  skills and equipment used in design,production,distribution;
 Sociocultural forces  result from changes in the social or national culture of society;
 Demographic forces  result from changes in the nature, composition, diversity of a
population;
 Political  Legal forces  results from changes in the political arena;
 Global  results from changes in international relationships among other countries.
Stakeholders
 Are the interest groups which have justifiable reasons for expecting and often for demanding
that the firm satisfy their claims an a responsible manner;
 Are individuals or groups who can affect or are affected by the company s activities.
Steps in analyzing stakeholders
 Identification of the stakeholders;
 Understanding the stakeholders specific claims;
 Reconciliation of these claims and assignment of priorities to them;
 Coordination of the claims with other elements of the company mission.
Environmental change
 Refers to the degree to which elements in the task and general environment change over
time;
Types of environmental uncertainty
 Regarding information availability accuracy and clarity;
 Regarding cause-effect relations;
 Regarding outcome preferences;
 Deriving from a time span of a definitive feedback;
 Deriving from an inability to assign probabilities to events.
Reducing environmental impact
 Managers can counter environmental threats by reducing the no of forces;
 All levels of managers should work to minimalize the potential impact of environmental
forces;
 Managers can create new organizational structures to deal with the change
Planning
Planning
 Defining the organization s goals, establishing an overall strategy and developing a
hierarchy of plans to achieve goals;
 Identifying and selecting appropriate goals and courses of action;
 Is the process used by managers to identify and select goals and courses for action for the
organization.
Reasons for planning
 Sets standards to facilitate control;
 Provides a direction;
 Minimizes waste and redundancy;
 Reduces the impact of a change
Good planning provides
 participation;
 sense of direction and purpose;
 coordination;
 control.
Planning principles
 Planning needs to be based on real timely information;
 Be action-based;
 Identify risks and challenges;
 Be ethical;
 Planning efforts need to be measured and evaluated.
3 rules of stating objectives:
 Spell out in quantifiable or measurable terms;
 Specify deadline for an achievement;
 Be challenging but achievable.
Characteristics of objectives(SMART)
 Specific (simple);
 Measurable;
 Attainable (achievable);
 Realistic;
 Timely (tangible)
Stages of planning process
 Determining the organization s mission and goals (define business);
 Strategy formulation (analyze current situation & develop strategies);
 Strategy implementation (allocate resources & responsibilities to achieve strategies).
Vision
 The idea, concept of our organization (it s not a goals, doesn t have to fulfill any criteria)
Mission
 A broad declaration of an organization s purpose that identifies the organization s
products and customers and distinguishes the organization from its competitors;
 A main goal in the organization.
Mission should answer
 What is the main goal of the organization?
 What is the domain (business) of our organization?
 Whose and which need does the organization fulfill?
Mission features
 general;
 real;
 important for customers;
 in accordance with general trends in society;
 translating into a financial outcome.
Goals
 Strategic (general, long-term, top management);
 Tactic (the specification of strategic goals, middle-term, middle management);
 Operational (the specification of tactic goals, short-term, low management)
Barriers to planning
 Environment;
 Reluctance to establish goals:
 unwillingness to give up alternative goals;
 fear of failure;
 a lack of organizational knowledge;
 a lack of confidence.
 Inadequate reward system;
 Resistance to changes;
 Time and an expense.
Organizing
Organization as a system
 System that is composed of interrelated subsystems;
 The survival or failure of the system is dependent on the interrelations of subsystems and
their contribution to the overall purpose of the system.
Primary activities
 they directly concerns creating and delivering a product
 inbound logistics;
 operations;
 outbound logistics;
 marketing & sales;
 service.
Support activities
 they are not directly involved in production;may increase effectiveness and efficiency
 procurement;
 human resource;
 management technology development;
 infrastructure
Organizing
 the process by managers to establish working relationships among employees to achieve
goals
Organizational bonds
 hierarchic;
 functional;
 technical;
 informational.
Job design
 Grouping tasks into specific jobs;
 It helps determine:
 What tasks are done;
 How the tasks are done;
 How many tasks are done;
 In what order the tasks are done
Good job design
 Allows for an employee input;
 Gives employees a sense of accomplishment;
 Includes training so employees know what tasks to do and how to do them properly;
 Provides good work/rest schedules.
Key elements of organization structure
 Work specialization;
 The chain of command;
 Span of control;
 Authority
 Responsibility
 Centralization
 Decentralization
 Departmentalization
Work specialization
 a job is broken down into a number of steps;
 each step is completed by a separate individual;
 makes the efficient use of the diversity of skills that workers have.
The chain of command
 is the continuous line of authority that extends from the highest level in an organization to
the lowest level and clarifies who reports to whom.
Span of control
 a number of employees that a manager can manage efficiently;
 increased over the last years;
 contingency variables impact the number.
Authority
 rights inherent in managerial position to give orders and expect them to be followed;
 related to one s position-not the characteristics of person.
Responsibility
 obligation to perform;
 goes hand-in-hand with authority.
Centralization
 a function of how much decision making authority is pushed down into lower levels
Decentralization
 pushing down decision making authority to the lowest levels.
Departmentalization
five ways to departmentalize
 function;
 product;
 customer;
 geography;
 process.
Functional structure
 Consist of departments such as marketing,production,finance etc
pros
 workers can learn from other doing similar tasks;
 easy for managers to monitor valuate workers.
cons
 hard for one department to communicate with other;
 managers can become preoccupied with their department and forget the company.
Product structure
 Consists of departments such as product A,product B etc
pros
 Increases accountability for product performance;
 Activities related to a specific product are under the direction of a single manager .
cons
 Hard for one department to communicate with others;
 Managers can become preoccupied with their department and forget the company
Region structure/Geographic structure
 Consists of departments such as Asia, Europe, and etc.
pros
 Employees are close to customers;
 A regional manager has flexibility needed to choose the products that best meets regional
customers
cons
 Hard for one department to communicate with others;
 Managers can become preoccupied with their department and forget the company.
Market structure
 Consists of departments based on customers problems and needs
pros
 See Functional
cons
 See Functional
Process structure
 Units are organized around common skills needed to complete a particular process (testing,
payment)
pros
 Offers are basics for homogeneous categorization of activities
cons
 See Functional
Organization design
Flat structure
 Have few levels of authority but a wide span of control(wide span of control,not many levels
of managers);
Tall structure
 Have many levels of authority relative to the organization s size(narrow span of
control,many levels of managers)
Simple structure
 Owner/manager employee, employee, employee;
Functional structure
 Plant manager manager engineering; m. accounting; m. information systems; m. human
resources; m. purchasing;
Divisional structure
 Divisional divided by region of product;
Mechanistic structure
 Tall (many departments and levels of management), extensive departmentalization,high
formalization, a limited information network;
Organic structure
 Flat (few departments, few levels of management), uses cross-hierarchical and cross-
functional teams, low formalization, participative decision making;
Matrix structures
 Managers group people by function/product/market etc. and product/functions/market etc.
teams simultaneously;
 results in a complex network of reporting relationships;
 very flexible and can respond rapidly to changes;
 each employee has two bosses what can cause problems,
Hybrid structure
 The ability to break a large organization into many smaller ones;
 It makes it much more easier to manage
Organizational structures types
 span of control and number of levels of authority (flat and tall structures);
 dominant organizational bonds (line structures, functional structures, ordnance structures,
technical structures)
Motivation
Motivation
 Human force to act
Motivating
 The process of motivating people in order to accomplish goals
Motive
 An eternal factor;connected with motivation.
Incentive
 An external factor, material/non-material, prizes/punishment, (connected with motivating).
Motivation process
 unsatisfied need>tension>drivers(motivators)>search behaviour>satisfied need>reduction of
tension
Kinds of motivation
 intrinsic - behaviour is performed for its own sake;
 extrinsic - baheviour is performed to acquire rewards
Theories of motivation
 Content Theories - What motivates, factors determining motivation;
 Process Theories  The process of motivating, how can we motivate?
 Reinforcement Theories
Content Theories
Maslow s hierarchy of needs
 (psychological,safety,social,esteem,self realization)
 We are wanting animals
 Our needs are arranged in hierarchy of importance
Herzberg s two factors theory
 focuses on outcomes that can lead to high motivation,job satisfaction and those that can
prevent dissatisfaction
 motivation needs  (satisfiers)  lead to strong motivation and satisfaction when they are
present but do not cause much dissatisfaction when they are absent; related to nature of
work and how challenging it is;
 hygiene needs  (dissatifiers)  cause much dissatisfaction then they are not present but do
not provide strong motivation when they are absent. They must be present at work before
motivators can be used to stimulate a person, related to the psychical & psychological
context of work.
Mcclelland s theory
 three needs theory  achievement, power, affiliation;
 achievement is more important than reward (material or financial);
 financial reward is regarded as a measurement of success not an end in itself;
 feedback is essential,
 achievement  motivated people constantly seek improvements and ways of doing thing
better,
 achievement  motivated people will logically favour jobs and responsibilities that naturally
satisfy their needs,
Alderfer s ERG
 after lower level needs satisfied person seeks higher needs;
 when unable to satisfy higher needs lower needs motivation is raised (regression)
Process Theories
Expectancy theory Vroom
 Vroom suggests that motivation will be high when workers feel that:
 high levels of effort lead to high performance,
 high performance will lead to attainment of desired outcomes.
 Vroom s theory consists of three areas:
 expectancy  perception that effort (input) will result in a level of performance,
 instrumentality  performance leads to outcomes,
 valance  how desirable each outcome is to a person,
Equity theory Adams
 Considers workers perception of the fairness of work outcomes in proportion to their inputs,
 Notes it is the relative rather than the absolute level of outcomes a person receives.
Reinforcement theories
Learning theory skinner
 Focuses on linkage between performance and outcomes in the motivation equation;
 Learning  permanent change in person s knowledge or behaviour resulting from practice or
experience;
 Operant conditioning  people learn to do thing leading to desired outcomes and avoid doing
things with adverse outcomes;
 positive reinforcement  people get desired outcomes when they perform needed work
bahaviour;
 negative reinforcement  a manager eliminates undesired outcomes once the desired
behaviour occurs.
Suggestions for motivating employees
 recognize individuals;
 match people to jobs;
 use goals;
 make goals attainable;
 individualize rewards;
 link rewards to performance;
 check the system for equity;
 don t ignore money
Pay and motivation
 expectancy theories - pay is an instrumentality (and outcome) must be high so that
motivating will be high;
 need theories  pay is used to satisfy many needs;
 equity theories  pay is given in relation to inputs;
 learning theories  outcomes (pay) are distributed upon performance of functional
behaviours
Controlling
3 types of control
 feedforward  anticipate problems before they occur;
 concurrent  manage problems as they occur;
 feedback  manage problems after they have arisen;
Steps in organizational control
1. establish the standards of performance goals targets against which performance is to be
evaluated;
2. measure actual performance;
3. compare actual performance against chosen standards of performance;
4. evaluate the result and initiate corrective actions if the standard is not being achieved.
Bureaucratic control
 control of bahaviour by means of a comprehensive system of rules.
Clan control
 control exerted on individuals and groups in an organization by shared values, norms,
standards of behaviour and expectations.
Leadership
Leadership:
The process where a person exerts (wywierać) influence over others and inspires, motivates, and
directs their activity to achieve goals.
Leader:
The person exerting the influence
Personal Leadership style:
the ways leaders choose to influence others.
Managers vs Leaders
Appointed and have formal May have managerial authority
authority and influence others
Charismatic Leadership
 ability to articulate a vision
 appearance as change agent
 environmental sensitivity
 extraordinary behaviour
 self confidence
 strong conviction (przekonanie)
 vision
Visionary Leadership
(three Ex rule)
Express the vision ------> Extend the vision ------> Explain the vision
<-------------- <------------------
Power  additional capacity to influence decisions
Enable managers to be a leaders and influence subordinates to achieve goals.
 Coercive (represyjna)
 Leadership
 Reward
 Referent
 Expert
Sources of power
 Legitimate power  managers authority resulting from their management, position in the
company;
 Reward power  based on the manager's ability to give or withhold rewards;
 Coercive power  based on ability to punish others;
 Expert power  based on a special skills of leader;
 Referent power  result from personal characteristics of leader who earn worker's respect,
loyalty and admiration.
Leadership models
1)Trait model  Sought (poszukiwany) to identify personal characteristics responsible for
all effective leadership;
2)Personal  Behavioural Model  personal qualities (przymioty) behavioural (związane z
zachowaniem) patterns;
 Michigan Studies
 Robert Tannenbaun and Warren Schmidt Continuum of Leadership Behaviour.
 The Blake Gordon Grid
 Theory X and Y
 Reddin 3D model
3)Situational model  identification of key situational factors and their importance;
 Contingency theory;
 Leader style. Theory Vroom Yeton;
 Tridimensional theory;
 House path goal;
4)Transactional model  Leading in therms of transaction  efforts and benefits (wysiłek i
marchewka);
5)Transformational model  Leader as a change agent  more individual, focuses on
inspiration and motivation. Followers are expected to think by themselves, not only what
they are told;
*changes and order by Milena : )
1)Trait model
Drive <-------> Desire to lead
Honesty and integrity <-------> Self confidence
(prawość)
Intelligence <-------> Job relevant knowledge
2)Personal  Behavioral model
 Consideration  leaders show care towards workers (employee-centered)
 Initiating structure  managers take steps to make sure work is done. (Done by assigning
work, setting goals, etc. ; Job-oriented)
- Identifiable leadership behaviour
 Autocratic  centralized authority, limits participation.
 Democratic  full participation, discussion.
 Laissez-Faire  gives team members full freedom.
Theories
 Michigan Studies
 Robert Tannenbaun and Warren Schmidt Continuum of Leadership Behaviour.
 The Blake Gordon Grid
 Theory X and Y
 Reddin 3D model
Michigan Studies
Job centered leadership Employee centered leadership
 structure a job  focus on human aspects
 closely supervision  building effective work group
 determines standards  giving subordinates freedom.
Tannenbaum and W. Schmidt - Continuum of Leadership Behaviour.
The Blake Mouton Grid
 Impoverished  a minimum effort to accomplish the work.
 Produce or perish  task completion but little regard for the development and morale of
subordinates.
 Middle of the road  adequate task completion and satisfactory morale are the goals
 County Club  focuses on being supportive and considerate of employes; task completion is
not a primary concern.
 Team Leader  facilitates production and morale by coordinating and integrating work-
related activities
Reddin  3D Model of leadership effectiveness
3)Situational Model
 The situational approach (metoda) requires leaders to demonstrate a strong degree of
flexibility
Managers style depends on a situation
 Contingency theory
 Leader  style theory
 Tridimentional Leader
 Path  Goal theory
Contingency (ewentualność) theory
 'Effective leadership is contingent on both the characteristics of the leader and the situation.'
Characteristics:
 Leader  member relations concerned with developing good relation with workers
 Task structure  worker perform so the job gets done
 Position power
 relationship  oriented managers are the most effective in IV, V, VI, VII
 task  centered managers are the most effective in I, II, III, VIII
Leader style. Theory Vroom Yeton
 The importance of the quality of the decision
 The extent to which the leader possesses sufficient information/expertise to make high 
quality decision
 The extend to which the problem is structured.
 The extend to which acceptance of commitment of the part of subordinates is critical to the
effective implementation of the decision
 The probability that the leader's autocratic decisions will receive acceptance by subordinates
 The extend to which the subordinates are motivated to obtain the organizational goals
 The extend to which subordinates are likely to be in conflict over preferred solution
Tridimentional Leader Effectiveness Theory
 'Leaders match their style to the competence and commitment if subordinates'
 Comprised of: directive dimension, supportive dimension.
-The four leadership styles
 Supporting (high supportive, low directive)
 Delegating (low supportive, low directive)
 Directing (low supportive, high directive)
 Coaching (high supportive high directive)
-Directive behaviour
Helps group members in goal achievement via one-way communication throught:
 giving directions
 establishing goals and how to achieve them
 methods of evaluation & time lines
 defining roles
-Supportive behaviour
Assist group members via two-way communication in felling comfortable with themselves, workers
and situations
House s Path-Goal Model
 Workers are trying to achieve clearly identified outcomes.
 Reward workers for high performance and attainment.
 Clarifying the paths to the attainment of the goals.
-Motivating with path  goal
 Directive behaviour: set goals, assign tasks, show how to do things
 Supportive behaviour: look out for the workers best interest
 Participate behaviour: give subordinates a say in matters that affects them
 Achievement-oriented behavior: setting very challenging goals, believing in workers
abilities.
-Steps to path  goal
 Determine the outcomes your subordinates are trying to obtain
 Reward subordinates for high-performance and goal attainment with the desired outcomes.
 Clarify the paths to goal attainment for workers, remove obstacles to performance, and
express confidence in worker s ability.
4; 5)Transformational leadership vs. Transactional leadership
Transformational leadership
- Make subordinates aware of how important their jobs are by providing feedback to the
worker
- Make subordinates aware of their own need for personal growth and development
- Motivate workers to work for the good of the organization, not just themselves
Transformational leaders
- Are charismatic and have a vision of how good things can be
- Openly share information with workers
- Are engaged in development of workers
Transactional leader: Transformational leader
Recognizes what it is that we Raises our level of awareness our
want to get from work and level of consciousness about the
tries to ensure that we get it if significance and value of
our performance merits it designated outcomes, and ways of
reaching them
Gets is transcend our own self
Exchanges rewards and interest for the sake of the team or
promises for our effort organization
In responsive to our Alters our need level (after
immediate self interest if they Maslow) and expands our range
can be met by getting the of wants and needs.
work done
Managing conflicts
Manage conflicts elevate performance and help team be better.
Conflict:
 the discord (dysonans) that arises when the goals, interests or values of different individuals
or groups are incompatible and those individuals or groups block one another's attempts to
achieve their objectives.
 Is behaviour intended to obstruct the achievement of some others persons' good
Positive outcomes of conflict
 better ideas are produced;
 people forced to search for new approaches;
 long-standing problems brought to the surface and resolved;
 clarification of individuals views
 stimulation of interest and capacity
 a chance for people to test their capacity (potential)
Negative outcomes of conflict
 some people feel defeated and demanded;
 the distance between people increased;
 a climate of mistrust and suspicion developed;
 individuals and groups concentrated on their own narrow interests;
 resistance developed rather than teamwork
 an increase in employee turnover
Types of conflict
 interpersonal conflict  between individual members of an organization, occurring because
of differences in their goals or values
 intragroup conflict  conflict that arises within a group, team or department
 intergroup conflict  conflict that occurs between groups, teams or department
 interorganizational conflict  conflict that arises across the organization
Sources of conflict
 different goals and time horizons;
 differences in perception: results in different people attaching different meanings to the
same stimuli (bodz
ce), as perceptions become a person's reality, valuer judgments can be a
potential major source of conflict;
 overlapping (zachodząca na siebie) authority  someone claims authority for the same
activities or tasks;
 departmentalization and specialization  differing goals and internal environments of
departments are potential source of conflict;
 task nature of work activities, task interdependence  when we are assigned a group
project and we are having a group member who consistently fails to get things done on
time, it creates some conflict because other group members are dependent on the late
member's contributions to complete the project;
 different evaluation of reward system  the way in which independent group, teams or
departments are evaluated and rewarded;
 scarce resources  individuals and groups have to fight for their share, the greater the
limitation of resources, the greater the potential for conflict;
 status inconsistencies (niespójność), inequitable treatment  the fact that some
individuals, group, teams or departments within an organization can also create a conflict;
 violation of territory  someone enters without permission (its my room!);
 environmental change;
 individual sources  attitudes, personality characteristics, particular needs, illness, stress;
 group sources  group skills, informal organization and group norms;
 organizational sources  communication, authority sources, leadership style, managerial
behaviour;
 the age gap;
 role conflicts  arises from inadequate or inappropriate role definition and needs to be
distingued (?) from personality clashes; these arise from incompatibility between two or
more people as individuals even through their roles may be defined clearly and understand
fully;
 role ambiguity  arises when there is lack of clarity as to the precise requirements of the
role and the person is unsure what to do;
 role incompatibility  occurs when a person faces a situation in which simultaneous
different or contradictory expectations create inconsistency;
 Role overload  is when a person faces too many separate roles or too great a variety of
expectations;
 role underload  can arise when the prescribed role expectations fall short of the person's
own perception of their role.
Conflict management strategies
 Compromise  a way of managing conflict in which part is concerned about not only it's
own goal accomplishment, but also the goal accomplishment of the other part and is willing
to engage in a give-and-take exchange and make concessions until a reasonable resolution of
the conflict reached.
 Collaboration  a way of managing conflict in which both parts try to satisfy their goals by
coming up with an approach (zbliżenie) that leaves them both better off and does not require
concession (ustępstwo) on issues that are important to either part.
 Accomodation  an ineffective conflict handling approach in which one part, typically with
a weaker power, gives in to the demands of other, more powerful part. It typically takes
place when one part has more power than other and is able to pursue it's goal attainment at
the expense of the weaker part. (buttery butter isn't it?)
 Avoidance  an ineffective conflict handling approach in which the two parts try to ignore
the problem and do nothing to resolve their differences. The real source of a disagreement
has not been addressed, conflict is likely to continue and communication and cooperation
are hindered (powstrzymany)
 Competition  an ineffective conflict handling approach in which each parts tries to
maximize it's own gain and has little interests in understanding the others parts position and
in arriving at a solution that will allow both parts to achieve their goals competition can
actually escalate levels of conflict as each parts tries to out maneuver the others.
Strategies focused on individuals
 Increasing awareness of the sources of conflict;
 increasing diversity awareness and skills;
 practicing job rotation or temporary assignments
 using permanent transfers or dismissals when necessary
Strategies focused on the whole organization
 changing an organization's structure or culture;
 altering the source of conflict.
Other strategies
 clarification of goals and objectives;
 resource distribution;
 human resource management policies and procedures;
 non-monetary reward;
 development of interpersonal/group process skills;
 group activities
 leadership and management;
 organizational processes;
 socio-technological approach.
Communicating
Communication
 the transfer and understanding of meaning
Interpersonal communication
 between two or more people
Organizational communication
 all the patterns, network and systems of communication within organization.
Functions of communication
 acts to control member behaviour in several ways;
 encourage motivation
 provides a release for emotional expression of feelings and for fulfillment of social needs
 provides information;
The interpersonal communication process
Barriers to effective interpersonal communication
(being a piórkowska...)
- Interpersonal level
 filtering;
 selective perception of the receiver;
 frame of difference, (helps interpret complex info);
 emotions;
 informational overload ,(too much info may be too much for our receiver);
 defensiveness (being fear of sth. guilty, being judgmental);
 nonverbal cues;
- Organizational level
 hierarchical (barriers resulting from a formal structure);
 functional (resulting from differences between functional departments);
- Cultural level
 national culture (different countries, different nations);
 high/low context, (situational level);
 stereotyping;
 ethnocentrism, (eg. 'our country is the best')
 cultural distance
Overcoming the communication barriers at the interpersonal level
 use feedback
 improve sending skills  simplify language, organize writing as the logical thought process
(reports, memos), understand the member of the team;
 improve listening skills  be more open minded, develop empathy, listen actively, constrain
emotions, observe nonverbal clues.
Model of communication
 verbal communication  oral ( conversation, speeches, telephone calls, video conferences),
written (letters, memos, reports, emails)
 nonverbal communication  dress, speech, intonation, gesture, facial expression.
Characteristics of communication channels
- formal communication channel
 authorized, planned and regulated by the organization;
 reflect the organization formal structure;
 define who has responsibility for information dissemination (rozpowszechnianie,) and
indicate the paper recipients of work  related information;
 may be modified by the organization;
 minor to serve consequences for ignoring them;
-informal communication channel
 develop through interpersonal activities of team members;
 not specified by the organization;
 may be short-lived or long-lasting;
 are more often lateral than vertical;
 information flow can be very fast;
 used for both work  related and network information.
Communication network
- The wheel
 better for simple tasks - one person responsible
for all spreading information; in most of cases is
not satisfying, for participants, centralized, more
efficient
- The circle
 decentralized, less efficient, better for
complex tasks (communication), more
satisfying,
- The all-channel (or comcon) network.
 decentralized, very high level of
interaction, no leadership, very high level
of satisfaction, better for short term
problems (no management)
-A 'Y' or chain network
 centralized (high level), simple tasks but can be used for
complex tasks as well, leadership, satisfaction-low (how is it
counted?), connection between all members
Effective Groups And Teams
The two characteristics distinguishing teams from groups:
 intensity (team is more intense)
 a specific, overriding team goal
Groups and teams contributions to organizational effectiveness (a competitive
advantage)
 enhancing performance
 increasing responsiveness to customers
 increasing innovation
 increasing motivation and satisfaction
Types of groups and teams:
 formal - cross functional; cross-cultural (different types of nationality); top management;
research and development; command groups, talk forces, virtual teams (technology to
communicate);
 informal  friendship groups, interest groups.
Key elements of group dynamics:
 group size
 group tasks (task independence: pooled (dla wszytskich), sequential, reciprocal (obopólny) 
command goals, share goals with tasks)
 group roles
 group leadership
 group development (forming: creating; storming: having a lot of ideas; norming: establish
some roles; preforming: time of transformation; adjourning: prediction of our next
activities, establish actual
 group norms (the right balance of conformity (zgodność) and deviance (i odchylenie))
 group cohesiveness (spoistość) ((suit to each other closiness about parts); consequences:
participation, conformity, group goal accomplishment).
Managing group and teams
 motivating to achieve organizational goals;
 reducing social loafing (pokromkowanie, podział)
 helping to manage conflict effectively
Managing change
Agenda
 organizational change  a notion;
 organizational change forces;
 types of scale of change;
 Grainer's model of change
 Levins theory of change
 evolutionary cycle of competitive behaviour
 managing change
Organizational change
 The movement of an organization away from its present state and toward some desired
future state to increase it's efficiency and effectiveness
 any alterations (=change) in people, structure or technology.
The process of accumulating organizational tension change adapting temporary
disorganization/or/searching for efficiency before the change Revealing effects of a new
organization effectiveness stabilization The process of accumulating organizational tension
change adapting etc.
Forces bringing about the need for change
 external forces  market place; governmental laws; regulations; technology; labour markets;
economic change
 internal forces  strategy, workforce, employee attitudes etc.
Types of change
 evolutionary change  change that is gradual, incremental (narastający) and narrowly
focused;
 revolutionary change  change that is rapid, dramatic and broadly focused;
 changing structure  work specialization, departmentalization, chain of command, span of
control, centralization, formalization, job redesign or actual structural design;
 changing technology  work processes, methods, and equipment
 changing people  attitudes, expectations, perceptions, and behavior.
Scale of change
 Fine tuning  at departmental level; making re-alignments (przegrupowanie) to ensure
(zapewnić) that there is match between strategy, structure, people and processes.
 Incremental adjustment  bit by bit changes to match the changing environment; minor
modifications to strategies or structures.
 Modular Transformation  major realignment of one or more departments or divisions,
downsizing, re-engineering.
 Corporate transformation  frame-breaking (znalazłem tylko jako metafora sabotażu...)
effecting the whole organization; discontinuous or frame-breaking change.
Phases of emergent vs planned change
 Fine tuning and incremental change are usually also seen as emergent,  unfolding
(rozwijając) as it happens
 The organization, an open system engages  naturally in emergent change as it tries to
maintain equilibrium with its changing environment
ENVIRONMENTAL FORCES TYPES OF CHANGE
FOR CHANGE
Ansoff and Strebel Stacey Tushman(19 Dumphy and Grundy Stacey
McDonell (1996) (1996) 88) Stace (1993) (1983) (1996)
(1990)
Predictable weak Close to Converging(fi Fine-tuning Smooth closed
certainty ne-tuning) incremental
Forcastable
by
extrapolation Close to Converging Incremental Bumpy contained
Predictable moderate certainty (incremental) adjustment incremental
threats and
opportunities
Partially strong Far from Discontinuous Modular discontinuo Open-
predictable certainty or frame- transormation us ended
opportunities breaking
Unpredictabl Corporate
e surprises transormation
*Basia work : )
Logical incrementalism (fizolofia)
 Quinn does not agree that change is either emergent or planned. Quinn believed that
although managers may have ab idea of the destination, they do not really plan change in
 big chunks (kloc, kawał)
Quinn says that:
 Managers are flexible about how to get to the destination;
 managers arrive at strategic change through negotiation with stakeholders
 managers allow strategic change to evolve (ewoluować) incrementally (przyrostująco), it is
based on agreed purposes and involves content critical re-assessment (ponowną ocenę);
 the planned change process involves opportunist learning as it goes along.
 Logical instrumentalism is both emergent and planned (it is ovious)
 Some theorists think that change might be neither wholly emergent, nor wholly planned
 instead, change may reflect the organization's life cycle
 Greiner identifies 4 stages and 5 phases though which organizations go as they grow nsd
develop.
Lewin's Force  Field theory of change
 To get an organization to change, managers must find a way to increase the forces for
change, reduce resistance to change or do both simultaneously.
STAGE 0
 the need of change
STAGE 1  unfreezing:
 preparing for the need of change;
 increasing the driving forces that direct behaviour away from the status quo;
 decreasing the restraining forces that resist change and push behaviour toward the status quo
 creating in people motivation needed to make change.
STAGE 2  changing to a new state:
 occurring new reactions, feelings, opinions, beliefs;
 internalization ( by creating situations encouraging to learn expected attitudes and behaviour
STAGE 3  Refreezing to make the change permanent:
 stabilization and integrating transformations in personality
 rewarding and supporting by the change agent.
Evolutionary cycle of competitive behaviour
 The divergent phase, based on innovation, variety beginning when one organization
discovers a new business opportunity, the industry as a whole strive to create differentiated
products and services that add customer value
 Eventually a breakpoints occurs as the emphasis shifts to the convergent phase, based on
efficiency/survival, which begins with imitation of competitors' best features, and then leads
to an emphasis an reducing costs. Competitors converge an total quality management,
continual, improvement & re-engineering to cut costs and maintain market share. Only the
fittest survive.
RYS
Spotting the breakpoints
Formal methods include:
 Environmental scanning;
 Benchmarking;
 Monitoring, data collection and data interpretation (detecting when a new divergent phase is
about to begin in more difficult because the new wave of innovation cannot yet be seen;
Informal methods include
 Open minded attitude;
 Cooperation across the organization;
 Culture supporting innovation and change
Managing change (steps in the organizational change)
Assessing the need for change
 recognizing that there is a problem
 identifying the source of the problem
Deciding on the change to make
 deciding what the organization's ideal future state would be
 identifying obstacles to change
Implementing the change
 deciding whether change will occur from the top down or form the bottom down (??)
 introducing and managing change
Evaluating the change
 compering prechange performance with postchange performance
 using benchmarking