Management and Managers
Management
The process of getting things done efficiently and effectively through and with people.
Organizational performance
Measures how efficiently and effectively managers use resources to achieve goals and
satisfy customers.
Efficiency
Measure of how well or how productively resources are used.
Effectiveness
Measure of appropriateness of the goals an organization is pursuing and of the degree to
which organization achieves the goals.
Organization
A systematic arrangement of people brought together to accomplish some specific goals.
A collectivity of people engaged in a systematic effort to produce a good or an activity.
Characteristics of an organization
purpose
people
structure
Managerial functions
planning (choose goals)
organizing (working together)
leading (coordinate)
controlling (monitor & measure)
Management compromises planning, organizing, leading, and controlling of resources to
achieve organizational goals effectively and efficiently
Planning
Identifying and selecting appropriate goals ( which goals should be persued? How should
the goal be achieved? How should the resources be allocated?)
Organizing
Structuring working relationships in a way that allow organizational members to work
together to achieve organizational goals.
Leading
motivating; articulating a clear vision and energizing and enabling organization members to
understand the part they play in achieving organizational goals.
Leadership involves a manager using power, influence, vision, persuasion, and
communication skills.
The outcome of leading function is high level of motivation and commitment from
employees to organization.
Controlling
Evaluating of how well an organization is achieving its goals and taking action to maintain
or improve performance.
Managers monitor individuals, departments, and the organization to determine whether
organization desired performance has been reached
the outcome of controlling function is accurate measurement of performance and regulation
of efficiency and effectiveness
Managers
are individuals who are responsible for completing tasks, require the supervision of other
members or organizational resources
Resources
human
material
financial
technological/informational
natural
Management levels
Top managers
Middle managers
First line managers
Managerial roles
Interpersonal [Figurehead role, Leader role, Liaison role]
Informational []Monitor role, Disseminator role, Spokesman role]
Decisional [Entrepreneur role, Disturbance handler role, Resource allocator role, Negotiator]
Managerial skills
Conceptual skills
Human skills
Technical skills
These skills are enhanced through formal training, reading, and practice.
Environment
Organizational environment
those forces outside its boundaries, that can impact it
all elements residing outside of an organization's boundary that have the potential to affect
some or all of the activities occurring in the organization.
Opportunities
openings for managers to enhance revenues and or open markets
Threats
issues that can harm an organization
Environmental dimensions
munificence
complexity
concentration
dynamism
turbulence
consensus
Task environment
Suppliers & distributors manager buy products from global suppliers or make items
abroad and supply themselves. Each country or a brand often has a unique system of
distribution
Customers & competitors formerly district national markets are merging into a huge
global market. Managers often must customize products to fit the culture. Global
competitors present new threats.
General environment
Economical forces effect the national economy and the organization;
Technological forces skills and equipment used in design,production,distribution;
Sociocultural forces result from changes in the social or national culture of society;
Demographic forces result from changes in the nature, composition, diversity of a
population;
Political Legal forces results from changes in the political arena;
Global results from changes in international relationships among other countries.
Stakeholders
Are the interest groups which have justifiable reasons for expecting and often for demanding
that the firm satisfy their claims an a responsible manner;
Are individuals or groups who can affect or are affected by the company s activities.
Steps in analyzing stakeholders
Identification of the stakeholders;
Understanding the stakeholders specific claims;
Reconciliation of these claims and assignment of priorities to them;
Coordination of the claims with other elements of the company mission.
Environmental change
Refers to the degree to which elements in the task and general environment change over
time;
Types of environmental uncertainty
Regarding information availability accuracy and clarity;
Regarding cause-effect relations;
Regarding outcome preferences;
Deriving from a time span of a definitive feedback;
Deriving from an inability to assign probabilities to events.
Reducing environmental impact
Managers can counter environmental threats by reducing the no of forces;
All levels of managers should work to minimalize the potential impact of environmental
forces;
Managers can create new organizational structures to deal with the change
Planning
Planning
Defining the organization s goals, establishing an overall strategy and developing a
hierarchy of plans to achieve goals;
Identifying and selecting appropriate goals and courses of action;
Is the process used by managers to identify and select goals and courses for action for the
organization.
Reasons for planning
Sets standards to facilitate control;
Provides a direction;
Minimizes waste and redundancy;
Reduces the impact of a change
Good planning provides
participation;
sense of direction and purpose;
coordination;
control.
Planning principles
Planning needs to be based on real timely information;
Be action-based;
Identify risks and challenges;
Be ethical;
Planning efforts need to be measured and evaluated.
3 rules of stating objectives:
Spell out in quantifiable or measurable terms;
Specify deadline for an achievement;
Be challenging but achievable.
Characteristics of objectives(SMART)
Specific (simple);
Measurable;
Attainable (achievable);
Realistic;
Timely (tangible)
Stages of planning process
Determining the organization s mission and goals (define business);
Strategy formulation (analyze current situation & develop strategies);
Strategy implementation (allocate resources & responsibilities to achieve strategies).
Vision
The idea, concept of our organization (it s not a goals, doesn t have to fulfill any criteria)
Mission
A broad declaration of an organization s purpose that identifies the organization s
products and customers and distinguishes the organization from its competitors;
A main goal in the organization.
Mission should answer
What is the main goal of the organization?
What is the domain (business) of our organization?
Whose and which need does the organization fulfill?
Mission features
general;
real;
important for customers;
in accordance with general trends in society;
translating into a financial outcome.
Goals
Strategic (general, long-term, top management);
Tactic (the specification of strategic goals, middle-term, middle management);
Operational (the specification of tactic goals, short-term, low management)
Barriers to planning
Environment;
Reluctance to establish goals:
unwillingness to give up alternative goals;
fear of failure;
a lack of organizational knowledge;
a lack of confidence.
Inadequate reward system;
Resistance to changes;
Time and an expense.
Organizing
Organization as a system
System that is composed of interrelated subsystems;
The survival or failure of the system is dependent on the interrelations of subsystems and
their contribution to the overall purpose of the system.
Primary activities
they directly concerns creating and delivering a product
inbound logistics;
operations;
outbound logistics;
marketing & sales;
service.
Support activities
they are not directly involved in production;may increase effectiveness and efficiency
procurement;
human resource;
management technology development;
infrastructure
Organizing
the process by managers to establish working relationships among employees to achieve
goals
Organizational bonds
hierarchic;
functional;
technical;
informational.
Job design
Grouping tasks into specific jobs;
It helps determine:
What tasks are done;
How the tasks are done;
How many tasks are done;
In what order the tasks are done
Good job design
Allows for an employee input;
Gives employees a sense of accomplishment;
Includes training so employees know what tasks to do and how to do them properly;
Provides good work/rest schedules.
Key elements of organization structure
Work specialization;
The chain of command;
Span of control;
Authority
Responsibility
Centralization
Decentralization
Departmentalization
Work specialization
a job is broken down into a number of steps;
each step is completed by a separate individual;
makes the efficient use of the diversity of skills that workers have.
The chain of command
is the continuous line of authority that extends from the highest level in an organization to
the lowest level and clarifies who reports to whom.
Span of control
a number of employees that a manager can manage efficiently;
increased over the last years;
contingency variables impact the number.
Authority
rights inherent in managerial position to give orders and expect them to be followed;
related to one s position-not the characteristics of person.
Responsibility
obligation to perform;
goes hand-in-hand with authority.
Centralization
a function of how much decision making authority is pushed down into lower levels
Decentralization
pushing down decision making authority to the lowest levels.
Departmentalization
five ways to departmentalize
function;
product;
customer;
geography;
process.
Functional structure
Consist of departments such as marketing,production,finance etc
pros
workers can learn from other doing similar tasks;
easy for managers to monitor valuate workers.
cons
hard for one department to communicate with other;
managers can become preoccupied with their department and forget the company.
Product structure
Consists of departments such as product A,product B etc
pros
Increases accountability for product performance;
Activities related to a specific product are under the direction of a single manager .
cons
Hard for one department to communicate with others;
Managers can become preoccupied with their department and forget the company
Region structure/Geographic structure
Consists of departments such as Asia, Europe, and etc.
pros
Employees are close to customers;
A regional manager has flexibility needed to choose the products that best meets regional
customers
cons
Hard for one department to communicate with others;
Managers can become preoccupied with their department and forget the company.
Market structure
Consists of departments based on customers problems and needs
pros
See Functional
cons
See Functional
Process structure
Units are organized around common skills needed to complete a particular process (testing,
payment)
pros
Offers are basics for homogeneous categorization of activities
cons
See Functional
Organization design
Flat structure
Have few levels of authority but a wide span of control(wide span of control,not many levels
of managers);
Tall structure
Have many levels of authority relative to the organization s size(narrow span of
control,many levels of managers)
Simple structure
Owner/manager employee, employee, employee;
Functional structure
Plant manager manager engineering; m. accounting; m. information systems; m. human
resources; m. purchasing;
Divisional structure
Divisional divided by region of product;
Mechanistic structure
Tall (many departments and levels of management), extensive departmentalization,high
formalization, a limited information network;
Organic structure
Flat (few departments, few levels of management), uses cross-hierarchical and cross-
functional teams, low formalization, participative decision making;
Matrix structures
Managers group people by function/product/market etc. and product/functions/market etc.
teams simultaneously;
results in a complex network of reporting relationships;
very flexible and can respond rapidly to changes;
each employee has two bosses what can cause problems,
Hybrid structure
The ability to break a large organization into many smaller ones;
It makes it much more easier to manage
Organizational structures types
span of control and number of levels of authority (flat and tall structures);
dominant organizational bonds (line structures, functional structures, ordnance structures,
technical structures)
Motivation
Motivation
Human force to act
Motivating
The process of motivating people in order to accomplish goals
Motive
An eternal factor;connected with motivation.
Incentive
An external factor, material/non-material, prizes/punishment, (connected with motivating).
Motivation process
unsatisfied need>tension>drivers(motivators)>search behaviour>satisfied need>reduction of
tension
Kinds of motivation
intrinsic - behaviour is performed for its own sake;
extrinsic - baheviour is performed to acquire rewards
Theories of motivation
Content Theories - What motivates, factors determining motivation;
Process Theories The process of motivating, how can we motivate?
Reinforcement Theories
Content Theories
Maslow s hierarchy of needs
(psychological,safety,social,esteem,self realization)
We are wanting animals
Our needs are arranged in hierarchy of importance
Herzberg s two factors theory
focuses on outcomes that can lead to high motivation,job satisfaction and those that can
prevent dissatisfaction
motivation needs (satisfiers) lead to strong motivation and satisfaction when they are
present but do not cause much dissatisfaction when they are absent; related to nature of
work and how challenging it is;
hygiene needs (dissatifiers) cause much dissatisfaction then they are not present but do
not provide strong motivation when they are absent. They must be present at work before
motivators can be used to stimulate a person, related to the psychical & psychological
context of work.
Mcclelland s theory
three needs theory achievement, power, affiliation;
achievement is more important than reward (material or financial);
financial reward is regarded as a measurement of success not an end in itself;
feedback is essential,
achievement motivated people constantly seek improvements and ways of doing thing
better,
achievement motivated people will logically favour jobs and responsibilities that naturally
satisfy their needs,
Alderfer s ERG
after lower level needs satisfied person seeks higher needs;
when unable to satisfy higher needs lower needs motivation is raised (regression)
Process Theories
Expectancy theory Vroom
Vroom suggests that motivation will be high when workers feel that:
high levels of effort lead to high performance,
high performance will lead to attainment of desired outcomes.
Vroom s theory consists of three areas:
expectancy perception that effort (input) will result in a level of performance,
instrumentality performance leads to outcomes,
valance how desirable each outcome is to a person,
Equity theory Adams
Considers workers perception of the fairness of work outcomes in proportion to their inputs,
Notes it is the relative rather than the absolute level of outcomes a person receives.
Reinforcement theories
Learning theory skinner
Focuses on linkage between performance and outcomes in the motivation equation;
Learning permanent change in person s knowledge or behaviour resulting from practice or
experience;
Operant conditioning people learn to do thing leading to desired outcomes and avoid doing
things with adverse outcomes;
positive reinforcement people get desired outcomes when they perform needed work
bahaviour;
negative reinforcement a manager eliminates undesired outcomes once the desired
behaviour occurs.
Suggestions for motivating employees
recognize individuals;
match people to jobs;
use goals;
make goals attainable;
individualize rewards;
link rewards to performance;
check the system for equity;
don t ignore money
Pay and motivation
expectancy theories - pay is an instrumentality (and outcome) must be high so that
motivating will be high;
need theories pay is used to satisfy many needs;
equity theories pay is given in relation to inputs;
learning theories outcomes (pay) are distributed upon performance of functional
behaviours
Controlling
3 types of control
feedforward anticipate problems before they occur;
concurrent manage problems as they occur;
feedback manage problems after they have arisen;
Steps in organizational control
1. establish the standards of performance goals targets against which performance is to be
evaluated;
2. measure actual performance;
3. compare actual performance against chosen standards of performance;
4. evaluate the result and initiate corrective actions if the standard is not being achieved.
Bureaucratic control
control of bahaviour by means of a comprehensive system of rules.
Clan control
control exerted on individuals and groups in an organization by shared values, norms,
standards of behaviour and expectations.
Leadership
Leadership:
The process where a person exerts (wywierać) influence over others and inspires, motivates, and
directs their activity to achieve goals.
Leader:
The person exerting the influence
Personal Leadership style:
the ways leaders choose to influence others.
Managers vs Leaders
Appointed and have formal May have managerial authority
authority and influence others
Charismatic Leadership
ability to articulate a vision
appearance as change agent
environmental sensitivity
extraordinary behaviour
self confidence
strong conviction (przekonanie)
vision
Visionary Leadership
(three Ex rule)
Express the vision ------> Extend the vision ------> Explain the vision
<-------------- <------------------
Power additional capacity to influence decisions
Enable managers to be a leaders and influence subordinates to achieve goals.
Coercive (represyjna)
Leadership
Reward
Referent
Expert
Sources of power
Legitimate power managers authority resulting from their management, position in the
company;
Reward power based on the manager's ability to give or withhold rewards;
Coercive power based on ability to punish others;
Expert power based on a special skills of leader;
Referent power result from personal characteristics of leader who earn worker's respect,
loyalty and admiration.
Leadership models
1)Trait model Sought (poszukiwany) to identify personal characteristics responsible for
all effective leadership;
2)Personal Behavioural Model personal qualities (przymioty) behavioural (związane z
zachowaniem) patterns;
Michigan Studies
Robert Tannenbaun and Warren Schmidt Continuum of Leadership Behaviour.
The Blake Gordon Grid
Theory X and Y
Reddin 3D model
3)Situational model identification of key situational factors and their importance;
Contingency theory;
Leader style. Theory Vroom Yeton;
Tridimensional theory;
House path goal;
4)Transactional model Leading in therms of transaction efforts and benefits (wysiłek i
marchewka);
5)Transformational model Leader as a change agent more individual, focuses on
inspiration and motivation. Followers are expected to think by themselves, not only what
they are told;
*changes and order by Milena : )
1)Trait model
Drive <-------> Desire to lead
Honesty and integrity <-------> Self confidence
(prawość)
Intelligence <-------> Job relevant knowledge
2)Personal Behavioral model
Consideration leaders show care towards workers (employee-centered)
Initiating structure managers take steps to make sure work is done. (Done by assigning
work, setting goals, etc. ; Job-oriented)
- Identifiable leadership behaviour
Autocratic centralized authority, limits participation.
Democratic full participation, discussion.
Laissez-Faire gives team members full freedom.
Theories
Michigan Studies
Robert Tannenbaun and Warren Schmidt Continuum of Leadership Behaviour.
The Blake Gordon Grid
Theory X and Y
Reddin 3D model
Michigan Studies
Job centered leadership Employee centered leadership
structure a job focus on human aspects
closely supervision building effective work group
determines standards giving subordinates freedom.
Tannenbaum and W. Schmidt - Continuum of Leadership Behaviour.
The Blake Mouton Grid
Impoverished a minimum effort to accomplish the work.
Produce or perish task completion but little regard for the development and morale of
subordinates.
Middle of the road adequate task completion and satisfactory morale are the goals
County Club focuses on being supportive and considerate of employes; task completion is
not a primary concern.
Team Leader facilitates production and morale by coordinating and integrating work-
related activities
Reddin 3D Model of leadership effectiveness
3)Situational Model
The situational approach (metoda) requires leaders to demonstrate a strong degree of
flexibility
Managers style depends on a situation
Contingency theory
Leader style theory
Tridimentional Leader
Path Goal theory
Contingency (ewentualność) theory
'Effective leadership is contingent on both the characteristics of the leader and the situation.'
Characteristics:
Leader member relations concerned with developing good relation with workers
Task structure worker perform so the job gets done
Position power
relationship oriented managers are the most effective in IV, V, VI, VII
task centered managers are the most effective in I, II, III, VIII
Leader style. Theory Vroom Yeton
The importance of the quality of the decision
The extent to which the leader possesses sufficient information/expertise to make high
quality decision
The extend to which the problem is structured.
The extend to which acceptance of commitment of the part of subordinates is critical to the
effective implementation of the decision
The probability that the leader's autocratic decisions will receive acceptance by subordinates
The extend to which the subordinates are motivated to obtain the organizational goals
The extend to which subordinates are likely to be in conflict over preferred solution
Tridimentional Leader Effectiveness Theory
'Leaders match their style to the competence and commitment if subordinates'
Comprised of: directive dimension, supportive dimension.
-The four leadership styles
Supporting (high supportive, low directive)
Delegating (low supportive, low directive)
Directing (low supportive, high directive)
Coaching (high supportive high directive)
-Directive behaviour
Helps group members in goal achievement via one-way communication throught:
giving directions
establishing goals and how to achieve them
methods of evaluation & time lines
defining roles
-Supportive behaviour
Assist group members via two-way communication in felling comfortable with themselves, workers
and situations
House s Path-Goal Model
Workers are trying to achieve clearly identified outcomes.
Reward workers for high performance and attainment.
Clarifying the paths to the attainment of the goals.
-Motivating with path goal
Directive behaviour: set goals, assign tasks, show how to do things
Supportive behaviour: look out for the workers best interest
Participate behaviour: give subordinates a say in matters that affects them
Achievement-oriented behavior: setting very challenging goals, believing in workers
abilities.
-Steps to path goal
Determine the outcomes your subordinates are trying to obtain
Reward subordinates for high-performance and goal attainment with the desired outcomes.
Clarify the paths to goal attainment for workers, remove obstacles to performance, and
express confidence in worker s ability.
4; 5)Transformational leadership vs. Transactional leadership
Transformational leadership
- Make subordinates aware of how important their jobs are by providing feedback to the
worker
- Make subordinates aware of their own need for personal growth and development
- Motivate workers to work for the good of the organization, not just themselves
Transformational leaders
- Are charismatic and have a vision of how good things can be
- Openly share information with workers
- Are engaged in development of workers
Transactional leader: Transformational leader
Recognizes what it is that we Raises our level of awareness our
want to get from work and level of consciousness about the
tries to ensure that we get it if significance and value of
our performance merits it designated outcomes, and ways of
reaching them
Gets is transcend our own self
Exchanges rewards and interest for the sake of the team or
promises for our effort organization
In responsive to our Alters our need level (after
immediate self interest if they Maslow) and expands our range
can be met by getting the of wants and needs.
work done
Managing conflicts
Manage conflicts elevate performance and help team be better.
Conflict:
the discord (dysonans) that arises when the goals, interests or values of different individuals
or groups are incompatible and those individuals or groups block one another's attempts to
achieve their objectives.
Is behaviour intended to obstruct the achievement of some others persons' good
Positive outcomes of conflict
better ideas are produced;
people forced to search for new approaches;
long-standing problems brought to the surface and resolved;
clarification of individuals views
stimulation of interest and capacity
a chance for people to test their capacity (potential)
Negative outcomes of conflict
some people feel defeated and demanded;
the distance between people increased;
a climate of mistrust and suspicion developed;
individuals and groups concentrated on their own narrow interests;
resistance developed rather than teamwork
an increase in employee turnover
Types of conflict
interpersonal conflict between individual members of an organization, occurring because
of differences in their goals or values
intragroup conflict conflict that arises within a group, team or department
intergroup conflict conflict that occurs between groups, teams or department
interorganizational conflict conflict that arises across the organization
Sources of conflict
different goals and time horizons;
differences in perception: results in different people attaching different meanings to the
same stimuli (bodzce), as perceptions become a person's reality, valuer judgments can be a
potential major source of conflict;
overlapping (zachodząca na siebie) authority someone claims authority for the same
activities or tasks;
departmentalization and specialization differing goals and internal environments of
departments are potential source of conflict;
task nature of work activities, task interdependence when we are assigned a group
project and we are having a group member who consistently fails to get things done on
time, it creates some conflict because other group members are dependent on the late
member's contributions to complete the project;
different evaluation of reward system the way in which independent group, teams or
departments are evaluated and rewarded;
scarce resources individuals and groups have to fight for their share, the greater the
limitation of resources, the greater the potential for conflict;
status inconsistencies (niespójność), inequitable treatment the fact that some
individuals, group, teams or departments within an organization can also create a conflict;
violation of territory someone enters without permission (its my room!);
environmental change;
individual sources attitudes, personality characteristics, particular needs, illness, stress;
group sources group skills, informal organization and group norms;
organizational sources communication, authority sources, leadership style, managerial
behaviour;
the age gap;
role conflicts arises from inadequate or inappropriate role definition and needs to be
distingued (?) from personality clashes; these arise from incompatibility between two or
more people as individuals even through their roles may be defined clearly and understand
fully;
role ambiguity arises when there is lack of clarity as to the precise requirements of the
role and the person is unsure what to do;
role incompatibility occurs when a person faces a situation in which simultaneous
different or contradictory expectations create inconsistency;
Role overload is when a person faces too many separate roles or too great a variety of
expectations;
role underload can arise when the prescribed role expectations fall short of the person's
own perception of their role.
Conflict management strategies
Compromise a way of managing conflict in which part is concerned about not only it's
own goal accomplishment, but also the goal accomplishment of the other part and is willing
to engage in a give-and-take exchange and make concessions until a reasonable resolution of
the conflict reached.
Collaboration a way of managing conflict in which both parts try to satisfy their goals by
coming up with an approach (zbliżenie) that leaves them both better off and does not require
concession (ustępstwo) on issues that are important to either part.
Accomodation an ineffective conflict handling approach in which one part, typically with
a weaker power, gives in to the demands of other, more powerful part. It typically takes
place when one part has more power than other and is able to pursue it's goal attainment at
the expense of the weaker part. (buttery butter isn't it?)
Avoidance an ineffective conflict handling approach in which the two parts try to ignore
the problem and do nothing to resolve their differences. The real source of a disagreement
has not been addressed, conflict is likely to continue and communication and cooperation
are hindered (powstrzymany)
Competition an ineffective conflict handling approach in which each parts tries to
maximize it's own gain and has little interests in understanding the others parts position and
in arriving at a solution that will allow both parts to achieve their goals competition can
actually escalate levels of conflict as each parts tries to out maneuver the others.
Strategies focused on individuals
Increasing awareness of the sources of conflict;
increasing diversity awareness and skills;
practicing job rotation or temporary assignments
using permanent transfers or dismissals when necessary
Strategies focused on the whole organization
changing an organization's structure or culture;
altering the source of conflict.
Other strategies
clarification of goals and objectives;
resource distribution;
human resource management policies and procedures;
non-monetary reward;
development of interpersonal/group process skills;
group activities
leadership and management;
organizational processes;
socio-technological approach.
Communicating
Communication
the transfer and understanding of meaning
Interpersonal communication
between two or more people
Organizational communication
all the patterns, network and systems of communication within organization.
Functions of communication
acts to control member behaviour in several ways;
encourage motivation
provides a release for emotional expression of feelings and for fulfillment of social needs
provides information;
The interpersonal communication process
Barriers to effective interpersonal communication
(being a piórkowska...)
- Interpersonal level
filtering;
selective perception of the receiver;
frame of difference, (helps interpret complex info);
emotions;
informational overload ,(too much info may be too much for our receiver);
defensiveness (being fear of sth. guilty, being judgmental);
nonverbal cues;
- Organizational level
hierarchical (barriers resulting from a formal structure);
functional (resulting from differences between functional departments);
- Cultural level
national culture (different countries, different nations);
high/low context, (situational level);
stereotyping;
ethnocentrism, (eg. 'our country is the best')
cultural distance
Overcoming the communication barriers at the interpersonal level
use feedback
improve sending skills simplify language, organize writing as the logical thought process
(reports, memos), understand the member of the team;
improve listening skills be more open minded, develop empathy, listen actively, constrain
emotions, observe nonverbal clues.
Model of communication
verbal communication oral ( conversation, speeches, telephone calls, video conferences),
written (letters, memos, reports, emails)
nonverbal communication dress, speech, intonation, gesture, facial expression.
Characteristics of communication channels
- formal communication channel
authorized, planned and regulated by the organization;
reflect the organization formal structure;
define who has responsibility for information dissemination (rozpowszechnianie,) and
indicate the paper recipients of work related information;
may be modified by the organization;
minor to serve consequences for ignoring them;
-informal communication channel
develop through interpersonal activities of team members;
not specified by the organization;
may be short-lived or long-lasting;
are more often lateral than vertical;
information flow can be very fast;
used for both work related and network information.
Communication network
- The wheel
better for simple tasks - one person responsible
for all spreading information; in most of cases is
not satisfying, for participants, centralized, more
efficient
- The circle
decentralized, less efficient, better for
complex tasks (communication), more
satisfying,
- The all-channel (or comcon) network.
decentralized, very high level of
interaction, no leadership, very high level
of satisfaction, better for short term
problems (no management)
-A 'Y' or chain network
centralized (high level), simple tasks but can be used for
complex tasks as well, leadership, satisfaction-low (how is it
counted?), connection between all members
Effective Groups And Teams
The two characteristics distinguishing teams from groups:
intensity (team is more intense)
a specific, overriding team goal
Groups and teams contributions to organizational effectiveness (a competitive
advantage)
enhancing performance
increasing responsiveness to customers
increasing innovation
increasing motivation and satisfaction
Types of groups and teams:
formal - cross functional; cross-cultural (different types of nationality); top management;
research and development; command groups, talk forces, virtual teams (technology to
communicate);
informal friendship groups, interest groups.
Key elements of group dynamics:
group size
group tasks (task independence: pooled (dla wszytskich), sequential, reciprocal (obopólny)
command goals, share goals with tasks)
group roles
group leadership
group development (forming: creating; storming: having a lot of ideas; norming: establish
some roles; preforming: time of transformation; adjourning: prediction of our next
activities, establish actual
group norms (the right balance of conformity (zgodność) and deviance (i odchylenie))
group cohesiveness (spoistość) ((suit to each other closiness about parts); consequences:
participation, conformity, group goal accomplishment).
Managing group and teams
motivating to achieve organizational goals;
reducing social loafing (pokromkowanie, podział)
helping to manage conflict effectively
Managing change
Agenda
organizational change a notion;
organizational change forces;
types of scale of change;
Grainer's model of change
Levins theory of change
evolutionary cycle of competitive behaviour
managing change
Organizational change
The movement of an organization away from its present state and toward some desired
future state to increase it's efficiency and effectiveness
any alterations (=change) in people, structure or technology.
The process of accumulating organizational tension change adapting temporary
disorganization/or/searching for efficiency before the change Revealing effects of a new
organization effectiveness stabilization The process of accumulating organizational tension
change adapting etc.
Forces bringing about the need for change
external forces market place; governmental laws; regulations; technology; labour markets;
economic change
internal forces strategy, workforce, employee attitudes etc.
Types of change
evolutionary change change that is gradual, incremental (narastający) and narrowly
focused;
revolutionary change change that is rapid, dramatic and broadly focused;
changing structure work specialization, departmentalization, chain of command, span of
control, centralization, formalization, job redesign or actual structural design;
changing technology work processes, methods, and equipment
changing people attitudes, expectations, perceptions, and behavior.
Scale of change
Fine tuning at departmental level; making re-alignments (przegrupowanie) to ensure
(zapewnić) that there is match between strategy, structure, people and processes.
Incremental adjustment bit by bit changes to match the changing environment; minor
modifications to strategies or structures.
Modular Transformation major realignment of one or more departments or divisions,
downsizing, re-engineering.
Corporate transformation frame-breaking (znalazłem tylko jako metafora sabotażu...)
effecting the whole organization; discontinuous or frame-breaking change.
Phases of emergent vs planned change
Fine tuning and incremental change are usually also seen as emergent, unfolding
(rozwijając) as it happens
The organization, an open system engages naturally in emergent change as it tries to
maintain equilibrium with its changing environment
ENVIRONMENTAL FORCES TYPES OF CHANGE
FOR CHANGE
Ansoff and Strebel Stacey Tushman(19 Dumphy and Grundy Stacey
McDonell (1996) (1996) 88) Stace (1993) (1983) (1996)
(1990)
Predictable weak Close to Converging(fi Fine-tuning Smooth closed
certainty ne-tuning) incremental
Forcastable
by
extrapolation Close to Converging Incremental Bumpy contained
Predictable moderate certainty (incremental) adjustment incremental
threats and
opportunities
Partially strong Far from Discontinuous Modular discontinuo Open-
predictable certainty or frame- transormation us ended
opportunities breaking
Unpredictabl Corporate
e surprises transormation
*Basia work : )
Logical incrementalism (fizolofia)
Quinn does not agree that change is either emergent or planned. Quinn believed that
although managers may have ab idea of the destination, they do not really plan change in
big chunks (kloc, kawał)
Quinn says that:
Managers are flexible about how to get to the destination;
managers arrive at strategic change through negotiation with stakeholders
managers allow strategic change to evolve (ewoluować) incrementally (przyrostująco), it is
based on agreed purposes and involves content critical re-assessment (ponowną ocenę);
the planned change process involves opportunist learning as it goes along.
Logical instrumentalism is both emergent and planned (it is ovious)
Some theorists think that change might be neither wholly emergent, nor wholly planned
instead, change may reflect the organization's life cycle
Greiner identifies 4 stages and 5 phases though which organizations go as they grow nsd
develop.
Lewin's Force Field theory of change
To get an organization to change, managers must find a way to increase the forces for
change, reduce resistance to change or do both simultaneously.
STAGE 0
the need of change
STAGE 1 unfreezing:
preparing for the need of change;
increasing the driving forces that direct behaviour away from the status quo;
decreasing the restraining forces that resist change and push behaviour toward the status quo
creating in people motivation needed to make change.
STAGE 2 changing to a new state:
occurring new reactions, feelings, opinions, beliefs;
internalization ( by creating situations encouraging to learn expected attitudes and behaviour
STAGE 3 Refreezing to make the change permanent:
stabilization and integrating transformations in personality
rewarding and supporting by the change agent.
Evolutionary cycle of competitive behaviour
The divergent phase, based on innovation, variety beginning when one organization
discovers a new business opportunity, the industry as a whole strive to create differentiated
products and services that add customer value
Eventually a breakpoints occurs as the emphasis shifts to the convergent phase, based on
efficiency/survival, which begins with imitation of competitors' best features, and then leads
to an emphasis an reducing costs. Competitors converge an total quality management,
continual, improvement & re-engineering to cut costs and maintain market share. Only the
fittest survive.
RYS
Spotting the breakpoints
Formal methods include:
Environmental scanning;
Benchmarking;
Monitoring, data collection and data interpretation (detecting when a new divergent phase is
about to begin in more difficult because the new wave of innovation cannot yet be seen;
Informal methods include
Open minded attitude;
Cooperation across the organization;
Culture supporting innovation and change
Managing change (steps in the organizational change)
Assessing the need for change
recognizing that there is a problem
identifying the source of the problem
Deciding on the change to make
deciding what the organization's ideal future state would be
identifying obstacles to change
Implementing the change
deciding whether change will occur from the top down or form the bottom down (??)
introducing and managing change
Evaluating the change
compering prechange performance with postchange performance
using benchmarking
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