Grammar - the system that puts words together into meaningful units.

Sentence - the basic block of language.

6 verb types: 1. intransitive, 2. linking, 3. transitive, 4. Vg, 5. Vc, 6. Be

Intransitive - they can end sentences or they can be followed by adverbs words and phrases that answer questions like: how? Where? Why? When? How often?

Linking - can't end sentencesnor they can be followed immediately by adverbs; they must be followed by either nouns or adjectives (seem, become, remain, taste, smell, sound, look, feel)

• adjectives that follow linking v. function as PREDICATE ADJ.

• nouns that follow linking v. function as PREDICATE NOUNS.

Transitive - they must be followed by nouns or noun phrases; those nouns are not predicate but DIRECT OBJECT. Sentences with transitive v. can be turned into Passive Voice.

Two - place transitives: Vg - it is like the verb “give” or “buy”.

• when Vg verbs are followed immediately by two noun phrases, the first noun function as an INDIRECT OBJECT, the second - DIRECT OBJECT.

• Indirect Objects are almost always receivers of sth

• With few exceptions (IO) can perceive as well as receive

• In order to perceive IO are almost always animate; usually - human

• Sentences with Vg have an alternative form. You can often rearrange the NP in a sentence with Vg, placing the IO into a PP introduced by “to” or “for”

• Vg must always has both - DIRECT and INDIRECT OBJECTS.

Two - place transitives: Vc - it is followed first by NP that function as a DIRECT OBJECT; then another NP, an adjective or an infinitive phrase; these phrases function as COMPLEMENTS.

• Vc are like “consider”, “make”, “believe”, “elect”

• Complements to objects in sentences with Vc are called OBJECT COMPLEMENTS

Verb BE - 8 forms

• can be followed by N or ADJ which function as PREDICATE NOUNS and PREDICATE ADJECTIVES

• it can be followed by an ADV OF PLACE called PREDICATE ADVERB

• adjectives, nouns and adverbs that follow BE are often classify as SUBJECTIVE COMPLEMENT

Semi - transitive verbs: like, cost, resemble, weigh

Noun Phrase - functions as a SUBJECT - CONSTITUENT

Verb Phrase - functions as a PREDICATE - CONSTITUENT

Auxiliary verb (helping) - will, have, be

Constituent - can be single word, phrase several words long or clauses dozens of word long

Object of Preposition - a noun phrase that follows a preposition (OBLIQUE OBJECTS)

Multiple - word verbs (two-word transitive) - generally phrasal vwrbs like: pick up, pull off.

Tense - PAST and PRESENT

Modality or mood - relates to the purpose of a sentence - whether it makes a statement, ask questions, gives an order or indicates possibility. Modality is indicated by a change in the form of a sentence.

Conditional mood - refers to possibility or probability, is formed by the addition of a modal auxiliary verb to the verb phrase.

Aspect - indicates that the action of a verb is completed or ongoing; it occurs in two forms - PERFECT and PROGRESSIVE.

Verb have 5 PRINCIPAL PARTS:

1. base (infinitive)

2. present tense

3. past tense

4. present participle

5. past participle

Sentence - NP: Subject + VP that contains tense

Mood - sentences generally make: statements, questions, order possibility or command, indicate possibility or eventuality

• when a sentence makes a statement it is INDICATIVE MOOD - twierdzący

• when it asks questions: INTERROGATIVE MOOD - pytający

• when it gives a command: IMPERATIVE MOOD - rozkazujący

• when it indicates possibility: CONDITIONAL MOOD - warunkowy

• STATEMENT MOOD - orzekający

Semi - modals: ought to, used to, dare to, seem to, need to, want to, happen to, have to

Modals (aux): can, could, shall, will, would, may, might, must

What happened to FUTURE TENSE - generally we indicate future time as the previous section indicates, by making the main verb conditional and by adding an adverb of time to the sentence.

Perfect aspect (completed action) - is shown by aux HAVE followed by a PAST PARTICIPLE

Progressive aspect (continuing action) - is composed by a form of BE used as an aux followed by a PRESENT PARTICIPLE.

Object - dopełnienie

Main Verb may be expanded in 8 ways:

1. tense + verb

2. tense + modal + verb

3. tense + perfect + verb

4. tense + progressive + verb

5. tense + modal + perfect + verb

6. tense + modal + progressive + verb

7. tense + perfect + progressive + verb

8. tense + modal + perfect + progressive + verb

Syntactic cathegories (1) - we can build new words: NOUN, VERB, ADJECTIVE, PREPOSITION, ADVERB

Syntactic cathegories (2) - non-lexical cathegories: DETERMINER(det), DEGREE WORD(deg), QUALIFIER(qual), AUXILIARY(aux), CONJUNCTION(con)

Direct object (dopełnienie bliższe) - the object has sth „done” to the verb

Constituent - words that work together as a single units (can be a single word, phrase…)

Subject - defines topic

Predicate - makes a comment about topic

Hierarchies - The system of inflections, syntax, and word formation of a language.

Phrase constituents: HEAD (central part), ATRIBUTE (word that clusters or aggregater around the head)

Voices - active, passive, middle

Sentence: 1. simple 2. compound

5 patterns of sentence:

1. subject + verb

2. subject + verb + object

3. subject + verb + ind. Obj. + dir. Obj

4. subject + verb + subject predicate

5. subject + verb + odject + object predicate

Noun - the name of person, place, thing or idea, they function as subjects or direct object (COMMON, PROPER, COLLECTIVE)

Verb - denotes an action or state of being; follows nouns and may be followed by adj, adv, nouns.

Adjective - describe or denote the qualities of sth. Occur between a determiner and a noun or after BE or other linking verb althoug they can follow a noun (ATTRIBUTE - precede noun, PREDICATIVE - follow Vlink)

Adverbs - modify verbs and contribute meaning of varioussorts of sentence

Pronouns - refer to or replace nouns and NP within a text or as direct reference to an outside situation

1. SUBJECT: you, he, she

2. OBJECT: me, him, her

3. REFLEXIVE: myself, yourself

4. POSSESSIVE: mine, yours, his, hers

5. DEMONSTRATIVE: this, that, those, these

Determiners - refer to special class of words that limit the nouns follow them

1. ARTICLES (a, an, the)

2. DEMONSTRATIVE (this, that…)

3. POSSESSIVE (my, your…)

Prepositions - connect words to other parts of sentence and have a close relationship with the word that follow, which is usually a noun

Conjunctions - words that join

1. coordinating (and, but)

2. subordinating

types of adverbs:

1. of manner - loudly

2. of duration - briefly, forever

3. of reason or purpose - to prove his value

4. of cause - by mistake

5. of time - yesterday

6. of instrument - with a hammer

7. of means - by the stairs

8. of agency - by the gardener

9. of association - with the Democrats

10. of frequency - every, often

11. of condition - without Hillary

12. of extent - as far as possible

13. of place - on the sofa

Word - the smallest free form; simple (hunt) and complex (hunter)

Morpheme - the smallest meaningful unit; free (hunt) or bound (-er)

Derivation - changes the cathegory and/or the type of meaning of the word, so it is said to create a new word (suffix - ment in “government”)

A derivational affix must combine with the base before an inflectional affix: neighbour (base) + hood (Derivational affix) + s (Inflectional affix) = neighbourhoods

Inflection - does not change either the grammatical cathegory or the type of meaning found in the word: suffix -s in books

An inflectional affix is more productive than derivational affix

English inflectional morphemes:

• Nouns: -s (plural); -`s (possessive)

• Verbs: -s (3^rd person); -ed (past tenses); -en (past participle); -ing (progressive)

• Adjectives: -er (comparative); -est (superlative)

English derivational morphemes:

• N→ADJ (-ic alcohol - alkoholic)

• ADJ→ADV (-ly exact - exactly)

• N→V (-ate vaccin - vaccinate)

• ADJ→N (-ity active - activity)

• N→N (-ship friend - friendship)

• V→V (re- cover - recover)

AFFIXATION

• Prefix - an affix that is attached in front of a base: re-play

• Suffix - an affix that is attached to the end of a base: kid - ness

• Infix - an affix that occur within a base (Indonesian): s - in - amburg

• Confix (circumfix/ambifix) - an affix that is attached to the front and to the end of a base simultaneously (Indonesian): ke - lapar - an

• Interfix, simulfix, superfix, transfix

Morpheme - the minimal unit of meaning

Free morpheme - a single morpheme that constitutes a word and can stand alone

Bound morpheme - a morpheme that must be attached to another morpheme

Prefix - an affix that occurs before a morpheme

Suffix - an affix that occurs after a morpheme

Derivational morpheme - deriving (creating) a new word with a new meaning

Inflectional morpheme - changing the form of a word because of the rules of syntax

English word COINAGE (The invention of new words.):

• COMPOUNDS - two or more words joined together to form a new word

1. endocentric - home + work = homework

2. exocentric - pick + pocket = pickpocket

• ACRONYMS - words derived from the initials of several words (SARS - severe acute respiratory syndrom; SCUBA - self-contained underwater breathing apparatus)

• BACK - FORMATION - creative reduction due to incorrect morphological analysis (editor→edit; television→televise)

• ABBREVIATIONS (CLIPPING) - a word which is clipped (advertisement→ad; facsimile→fax; hamburger→burger; gasoline→gas

• EPONYMS - words derived from proper names or things (Celsius, Sandwich)

• BLENDING - similar to compounds, but parts of the words are deleted (motor + hotel = motel; Wireless + Fidelity = Wi - Fi)

Types of nouns:

1. common: all the nouns that are not proper

2. proper: refer to unique people, places or things; they are sets of one and typically name something or someone

3. concrete

4. abstract

5. countable (soda)

6. noncountable (water)

7. collective (team)

8. noncollective (quarterback)

Crossover principle - this principle will not allow nouns with the same referent to cross each other when you rearrange the parts of sentence (Hitchcock often put himself into his movies - NOT: Himself was often put by Hitchcock into his movies)

Determiners: most noun phrases consist of a noun alone or a noun together with an Article, a Possessive, a Demonstrative, a Number or a Pre - Article

Difference between Determiners and Adjectives: 1. Determiners are not Adjectives; 2. Adjecives are CONTENT WORDS like nouns, verbs and adverbs; 3. Determiners are STRUCTURE WORDS like prepositions, pronouns and conjunctions; 4. Adjectives can usually be compared (thiner than) and intensified with adverbs like: pretty and very;

5.Adjectives can also follow Vlink, especially: seem

Articles (a, an, the): “the” is DEFINITE, two others are INDEFINITE. The definite article indicates that the speaker and listener share information→SHARED INFORMATION = OLD INFORMATION. Indefinite articles don't indicate shared information

Demonstratives : (this, that, these, those) like definite article, they indicate old information, they also point to things

Deixis: the grammatical concept of pointing things (this and these - things near, that and those - further; this and that - singular, these and those - plural)

Possessive Pronouns: some of them are determiners, they form phrases with the noun they precede. Some possessive pronouns are independent, they pattern just like nouns. We have

8 determiner - possessive pronouns: singular (my, your, his, her, its); plural (our, your, their)

Numbers: are considered determiners when they precede nouns. They fall into one or two classes: CARDINAL (one, two) or ORDINAL (first, second, next, last). Ordinal numbers generally follow articles or possessives. Numbers that don't precede nouns are generally considered nouns.

Pre - articles: they can all occur before articles: PARTITIVES (a lot of, many of, none of); QUANTIFIERS (all, every); MULTIPLIERS (twice, three times)

Post - noun Modifiers: “all” and “both” can occur after nouns as well as before them when they occur after nouns, such words become Post - noun Modifiers

Genitive Nouns (also known as POSSESSIVE Nouns): though they're not determiners, they act like possessive pronouns. Possessive Nouns come in two varieties: inflected and phrasal. Inflcted possessive nouns always end in -`s (reporter's, boy's). phrasal possessives always include the preposition “of”; they are prepositional phrases (the music of Bach). Phrsal possessives can usually be turned into inflected forms (Bach's music). The inflected and phrasal nouns can be called GENITIVES (the old term for the case of the noun indicated by `s or the of phrase). What we're called a possessive pronoun = a genitive pronoun

Other types of pronouns: PERSONAL - refer to previously mentioned nouns (subject forms: I, you, he; object forms: me, you, him); REFLEXIVE - refer to the subject of the clause they're in; we recognize 8 RP. They end in - self or selves ; INDEFINITE - they don't refer to specific nouns, their meaning is indefinite or general (somebody, something, nothing, nobody, anything, anybody, everybody, everything

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