England in the 19th century

George III (1760-1820), grandson of George II

George IV (1820-1830), son of George III

William IV (1830-1837), son of George III and brother of George IV

Victoria (1837-1901), daughter of Edward, duke of Kent and Princess Victoria of Saxe -Coburg; Victoria married Prince Albert of Saxe-Coburg-Gotha in 1840; Edward was the 4^th son of George III and brother of George IV and William IV

1. The rapid industrial development of Britain with the rise of population (18 mln people) employed in cotton industry (Manchester as “cottonpolis”), trade, coal, iron industry (also for railway). 1840—railway construction (8.000 km of track).

2. The Industrial Revolution - great wealth, work for masses, the growth of the middle class, the rise of industrial and urban working class; the rich and the poor, hence the destruction of machinery by workers whose jobs were threatened (Luddites); the destruction of farms by hungry farm workers in the countryside.

Dół formularza  The Luddites In the early months of 1811 the first threatening letters from General Ned Ludd and the Army of Redressers, were sent to employers in Nottingham. Workers, upset by wage reductions and the use of unapprenticed workmen, began to break into factories at night to destroy the new machines that the employers were using. In a three-week period over two hundred stocking frames (machines used in textile industry) were destroyed. In March, 1811, several attacks were taking place every night and the Nottingham authorities had to enroll four hundred special constables to protect the factories. To help catch the culprits, the Prince Regent offered £50 to anyone "giving information on any person or persons wickedly breaking the frames". Luddism gradually spread to Yorkshire, Lancashire, Leicestershire and Derbyshire. In Yorkshire, croppers, a small and highly skilled group of cloth finishers, turned their anger on the new shearing frame (machines for cutting things and trimming) that they feared would put them out of work. In February and March, 1812, factories were attacked by Luddites in Huddersfield, Halifax, Wakefield and Leeds. In February 1812 the government of Spencer Perceval proposed that machine-breaking should become a capital offence. Despite a passionate speech by Lord Byron in the House of Lords, Parliament passed the Frame Breaking Act that enabled people convicted of machine-breaking to be sentenced to death. As a further precaution, the government ordered 12,000 troops into the areas where the Luddites were active. On of the most serious Luddite attacks took place at Rawfolds Mill near Brighouse in Yorkshire. William Cartwright, the owner of Rawfolds Mill, had been using cloth-finishing machinery since 1811. Local croppers began losing their jobs and after a meeting at Saint Crispin public house, they decided to try and destroy the cloth-finishing machinery at Rawfolds Mill. Cartwright was suspecting trouble and arranged for the mill to be protected by armed guards. Throughout 1812 there were attacks on Lancashire cotton mills. Local handloom weavers objected to the introduction of power looms. On 20th March, 1812 the warehouse of William Radcliffe, one of the first manufacturers to use the power-loom, was attacked in Stockport. Wheat prices soared in 1812. Unable to feed their families, workers became desperate. There were food riots in Manchester, Oldham, Ashton, Rochdale, Stockport and Macclesfield. On 20th April several thousand men attacked Burton's Mill at Middleton near Manchester. Emanuel Burton, who knew that his policy of buying power-looms had upset local handloom weavers, had recruited armed guards and three members of the crowd were killed by musket-fire. The following day the men returned and after failing to break-in to the mill, they burnt down Emanuel Burton's house. The military arrived and another seven men were killed. Economic distress. Social tension. Workers movements organized but collapsing, the rise of Chartism (political rights for workers) but met with opposition of authority. But Parliament was reformed, free trade and no more protection for agriculture. Reformers demanded change of political and working conditions. A great contribution of Ch. Dickens to defend the workmen (esp. in his novel Hard Times an appeal to introduce reforms of factories, town life and a new responsibilities of the government). Peterloo—in working class history—an assembly of people in St. Peter's Field, outside Manchester, to hear the radical politician Henry Hunt speaking in favor of parliamentary reform. The mob preparing the revolution. Police reaction and the killed and injured. The first serious working class protest but disorganized. Robert Peel the HS—reforms in criminal law and the introduction of police force in 1829 instead of army which usually intervened at riots. The repeal of the Test and Corporations Acts in 1828 &1829 (the PM, duke of Wellington) by which Noncomformists and Roman Catholics could hold offices and be MPs. Without that—chaos and discontent. Parliamentary reforms—major ambition of the mid class people and working class. Reform Bill rejected of 1830 , to succeed it has to be approved by both Houses of Parl. And get the assent of the monarch. Finally in 1832 the Reform Bill passed—it provided the mid. class with the vote and included the Midlands and the north in the political nation. The passing of the RB allowed for Britain's maturity and shook off the threat of using force to gain the constitutional change. A Factory Act passed in 1833—limits on working of children, to promote health, safety and humanity. 1842- Mine Act forbidding employment underground of women and boys under ten. The implementation of the Act under inspectorate. The Poor Law Act of 1834—substinance for those in parish workhouses for the workless (family splits as men and women had to go to separate workhouses). 1846 General Board of health set up followed “The Sanity Conditions for the Laboring Classes” by Edwin Chadwick—promotion of healthy living standards nationally esp. in the cities.. Promotion of state education, first in religious Anglicans and Noncomformists. The abolition of slavery in 1833—Christianity's repugnance of slavery. The Grand National Consolidated Trade Unions (GNCTU) disbanded in 1834—members transported to Australia for activities. Then Charters. Chartism—6 points to be respected: universal manhood suffrage annual Parliaments voting by ballot equal constituencies no property qualifications for MPs and the payment of MPs, so that working-class men could go to Westminster. Only last petitions accepted by Parliament. The Economist started in 1843. Sir Robert Peel the Tory Prime Minister (former Home Secretary)—free entry of cheap corn important to prevent famine in Ireland, hence Peel achieved the repeal of Corn Law (by splitting his party into Peelites and Opposition).

The Corn Laws (see: website)

Overview. The Corn Laws were a series of statutes enacted between 1815 and 1846 which kept corn prices at a high level. This measure was intended to protect English farmers from cheap foreign imports of grain following the end of the Napoleonic Wars.

Note: in this context "corn" means grain of all kinds, not simply the vegetable corn.

Background. During the Napoleonic Wars, the British blockaded the European continent, hoping to isolate the Napoleonic Empire and bring economic hardship to the French. One result of this blockade was that goods within the British Isles were protected against competition from outside sources. Farming became extremely lucrative, and farming land was traded at very profitable rates.

When the wars ended in 1815 the first of the Corn Laws was introduced. This law stated that no foreign corn would be allowed into Britain until domestic corn reached a price of 80 shillings per quarter.

Who Benefited? The beneficiaries of the Corn Laws were the nobility and other large landholders who owned the majority of profitable farmland. Landowners had a vested interest in seeing the Corn Laws remain in force. And since the right to vote was not universal, but rather depended on land ownership, voting members of Parliament had no interest in repealing the Corn Laws.

Who suffered? The artificially high corn prices encouraged by the Corn Laws meant that the urban working class had to spend the bulk of their income on corn just to survive. Since they had no income left over for other purchases, they could not afford manufactured goods. So manufacturers suffered, and had to lay off workers. These workers had difficulty finding employment, so the economic spiral worsened for everyone involved.

Reform. The first major reform of the Corn Laws took place during the ministry of the Duke of Wellington in 1828. The price of corn was no longer fixed, but tied to a sliding scale that allowed foreign grain to be imported freely when domestic grain sold at 73 shillings per quarter or above, and at increasing tariffs the further the domestic price dropped below 73 shillings. The effect of this reform was negligible.

The Reform Act. In 1832 the right to vote was extended to a sizable portion of the merchant class through the passage of The Reform Act. The merchant classes were far more likely to look favorably on changes to the Corn Laws.

The Reformers. Several groups arose during the early and mid 1800s to fight for repeal of the Corn Laws amid other social reforms. Most prominent among these movements were the Chartists and the Anti-Corn Law League. The ACLL began in 1836 as the Anti Corn Law Association, and in 1839 adopted its more familiar name. Despite its social reform agenda, the league drew its members largely from the middle-class; merchants and manufacturers. Their aim was to loosen the restrictions on trade generally, so that they could sell more goods both at home and around the world. After constant agitation, the ACLL was successful, and in 1846 the government under Sir Robert Peel was persuaded to repeal the Corn Laws.

Home and Foreign Policy, 1850-1900

The Great Exhibition, Hyde Park, London, held 1851, the demonstration and display of British and imperial products. The pride of the British and their economic hegemony.

Britain's heavy investments abroad.

The Whigs-Liberals, believed in laissez-faire economy and light taxation (if possible no taxes at all); so this was good for the middle class so the Liberals—the dominant party supported by the urban middle class and the Noncomformists. Their ideology, more to the left, conducted to XX cent socialism but in the 19^th cent they defended peace, retrenchment (thriftiness) and reforms.

The Tories-Conservatives- to be the party of landowners was difficult in the industrial era. Under Benjamin Disraeli, the Prime Minister, the Conservatives were transformed, in the years which followed the repeal of the Corn Law (1846) into a party supported by both the middle and the working classes. The C. backed the social reforms and the sense of nation.

A big war turmoil in Europe, with France against Britain, Russia's expansion, the sense of the Turkish Empire growing in power, Russia's intentions to attack India to take control of the Mediterranean esp. after the opening of the Suez Canal in 1869. Britain's hostility to Russia and the reason for war in 1854 (to defend the Holy Places in Jerusalem) was trivial. Britain feared of Russia and her control of the Turks, so with France Britain fought Russia in a war which continued until 1856. During the fights in the Crimea the nursing was performed by Florence Nightingale who is told to have been the founder of modern nursing.

Liberals displaced by the Conservatives in 1866, their Reform Bill with the support of the working-class voters to break the Liberal monopoly of government The second Reform Act (1867)—granting of the vote to the artisans and prosperous workers in the town. But in 1868 elections Liberals won again headed by W.E. Gladstone; the compulsory schooling since 1870, Civil Service established; reforms in the army , less severe punishments; the Secret Ballot Act in 1872 made voting a private business and not as before a matter of intimidation and bribery.

1874—the Conservatives return. Disraeli as Prime Minister, a brilliant debater, a talented politician esp. displaying his skills in foreign policy; 1875 he bought a half-share in the Suez Canal. In 1878 he obtained Cypress for Britain to secure that part of the Mediterranean before Russia. He named Queen Victoria the Empress of India in 1877, which she liked and admired the Prime Minister for it.

Under Gladstone Britain managed to get influence in Egypt and the Sudan as a result of part acquisition of the Suez Canal (general Gordon sent to Khartoum to evacuate the Egyptian army; Gordon stayed there despite Gladstone's commands and when relief forces were finally sent to him it was too late in 1885; Gladstone called the “murderer of Gordon; Gladstone less affectionate called the “Grand Old Man” the reversal of his affectionate nickname).

Ireland. Famine and mass emigration. Attempts to force out the Home Rule but no consent of British Parliament until 1893; the First World War finally settled the Irish question.

1868 the Trade Union Congress (TUC) with 1,5 mln workers, the national voice of unionism; demand of higher wages. 1900 the beginning of Labour Party which was a successor of the Liberal Party.

The British and Empire

Its power at the end of the century, its possession all over the world and the world population. Until after the II World War when the Empire started falling apart, dismantled and the return to the middle-weight power. Still with ties with former territories. Until, today has Britain been influential also thanks to the USA and its power (and the language).

India—the most important territory in the entire Empire (see also W. Thackeray Vanity Fair and other novels) and the Far East. Several places, the former territories of the Empire, strategic points on the military map of the world. After the Napoleonic war in 1815 Britain's possessions/acquisitions of Gibraltar and Malta. Cyprus from 1878. The Mauritius taken from the French and the Cape and Ceylon from the Dutch. Singapore from 1819 and Hong Kong which is still British colony from 1842. 1839 the acquisition of Aden (the Gulf of Aden) to the south of Iran and close to Egypt to control the Red Sea. The bases there provided the fuelling for the British ships.

Tea, wood, cotton and jute -exports from India and Britain provided cotton textiles. India the most important goods and religion and culture foothold. From the mutiny of Indian soldiers the East India Company handed over to the British. The administration was appointed to control India. The Indian Civil Service -reliable and no corruption. Indians and British cooperated and Indians wished to have British-like institutions but the British demonstrated their racy pride.

The crisis in Canada fostered the evolution of the British Empire, 1837 rebellion in Canada so the erection of the Commission of Inquiry and the cabinet in Canada submitted to the assembly. The Canadian provinces joined in Confederation 1867, the British troops withdrew and Canada's provinces held together to avoid being absorbed by the USA in the south. The last province which joined the Confederation was Newfoundland in 1949.

Then also Australia and New Zealand -for sending convicts, the practice stopped in 1840. Australia developed mainly on producing sheep wool -merino and its climate, rather mild and favoring the sheep breeding 1901 Australia adopted the federal structure of the Commonwealth.

New Zealand a tightly knit union 1876 (capital Wellington). 1882 the invention of refrigeration—NZ sent all her lamb and dairy products to Britain. A large population of NZ—the Maoris, the native or indigenous Polynesian people of New Zealand. They arrived in New Zealand from Eastern Polynesia in several waves ^[6] at some time before 1300 CE.^[7] Over several centuries in isolation, the Māori developed a unique culture with their own language, a rich mythology, distinctive crafts and performing arts. They formed a tribal society based on East Polynesian social customs and organization. Horticulture flourished using plants they introduced, and after about 1450 a prominent warrior culture emerged.

In the Māori language the word māori means "normal", "natural" or "ordinary". In legends and oral traditions, the word distinguished ordinary mortal human beings—tāngata māori—from deities and spirits (wairua);^[8][i] likewise wai māori denoted "fresh water" as opposed to salt water. There are cognate words in most Polynesian languages,^[9] all deriving from Proto-Polynesian *ma(a)qoli, which has the reconstructed meaning "true, real, genuine". Missionaries were coming to NZ to support the Maori rather than the settlers. The NZ society - rustical/pastoral and democratic, with the British way of life, slight class divisions, high taxes for the rich---hence the division of large estates to small ones.

The West Coast of Africa---under British domination handed to them by the Dutch and the Danish (1850 and 1871). The Cape was British but then the conflict broke out between the British and the Boers (fertile soil, mineral wealth led to Br. expansion).

The Suez Canal opened 1869 drew Britain into the matters with Egypt and the Sudan. British influence extended to Nigeria, Uganda, Kenya through private companies, businessmen and missionaries rather than Britain as a state. The Cape -Cairo railway after the IWW.

1890 partition of Africa by European powers: Britain, France, Germany and Italy.

The XIX century ended in wars, frictions between the Boer (Dutch: farmer) and British in South Africa. Boer (
 /bʊər/, /boʊ.ər/, or /bɔər/; Afrikaans: [bur]) is the Dutch and Afrikaans word for farmer, which came to denote the descendants of the Dutch-speaking settlers of the eastern Cape frontier in Southern Africa during the 18th century, as well as those who left the Cape Colony during the 19th century to settle in the Orange Free State, Transvaal (which are together known as the Boer Republics), and to a lesser extent Natal. Their primary motivations for leaving the Cape were to escape British rule and extract themselves from the constant border wars between the British imperial government and the native tribes on the eastern frontier.

The British were angry not to give up the gold mines in Johannesburg which attracted many Britons there.. So the Boer War lasted from 1899 to 1902, between the Boer farms and the regular British army. The British were regarded as aggressors and the Boer received the support of Germany. The British made there the first concentration camps. Peace was concluded in 1902 with the new liberal government in Transvaal in 1906 and on the Orange Free State in 1907.

The Empire gave vast opportunities for trade until 1930, which helped to sustain British position. Esp. with the decline of European markets in the last years of the 19^th century. The Empire also provided the home for millions of Britons and employment. On the imperial territories the British built railway, roads, developed education system with missionaries and did some social welfare and the British law was set up everywhere.

Social life in Victorian Britain

1. The blessed are of Victoria, her religiousness, thriftiness, pinnacle of popularity, hard work, devotion to family, she was a paragon of high qualities dear to Britons, confident and successful.

2. She was 18 years of age when ascending the throne and was guided by the PM. Lord Melbourne who treated her with friendly, kind and avuncular (uncle like) affection. 1841 she married Prince Albert, her cousin, until his death in 1861. She was made Empress of India in 1870. Her Diamond Jubilee 1297—when she was literally deified. She cooperated gladly with all Prime Ministers , the dearest of whom was Peel and Disraeli; she disliked Gladstone but treated him as Prime Minister with due respect.

3. Her views rather conservative; dignity of crown; hierarchy; interest vested in foreign affairs; related to most of the European royal houses; support for the British army in the wars.

4. The religious revival. 1833 the Oxford movement, a group of churchmen released “tracts for the Times”—the eternal authority of the church rather than its foundation on the Reformation basis of the 16^th century. A number of Tractarians left the church of England and joined the Roman Catholic Church, eg. John Newman, a later cardinal. The Tractarians remained a minority but they held Anglicanism on high position. Evangelicals, within the Church of England, held the authority of the bible and the mission to preach to the people. There was hostility between the Tractarians (High Church men) and the evangelicals, the Low Church men, in the Established Church. But both groups somehow contributed to the diminishing of the Church rank in what was called the Industrial Revolution. 1856 the Cath. Church was allowed by Parliament to set up the first after the Reformation dioceses in Britain. 1895-1903 Westminster Cathedral was completed in London.

5. 1859 Charles Darwin and The Origin of Species shuttered the biblical creation of man substituted by the theory of evolution. And natural selection. Darwin accused of destroying the moral basis of scientific studies.

6. Two great universities revived Oxford and Cambridge, 1825 University College in London., public schools, private and fee-paying schools.

7. A great development and enrichment of literature.

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