Differences between written and spoken discourse:
premamence (written text is stable, we can refer to it and perform it in various speed,levels depends on skills, abilities. Spoken skill-dynamic, speed set by the speaker);
explicitness (necessity of being clear, specify the used context and references, speaker & listener share the same language);
density (all words that we write are important, writing is shorter, in speach we use a lot of repetitions, gaps etc., speach is longer and redundant, allow interpretation);
detachment (speaker and listener are seen, immediate interraction, writing is detached in time and space, writer doesn’t know how his text will be interpreted);
organisation;
slowness of production, speed of reception (slow-when we have no idea what to write, reading text- we have to slow down, reading official messages in foreign lang.- we slow down more);
standard language (depend on who we are adressing, don’t care about the quality of lang., speakers can use dialect or slang; written lang must be universally understood, it must use appropriate forms of address depending on level of formality);
a learnt skill (we aquire spoken lang. and develop dynamically; we can survive without ability to write; writing is bought and learnt, requires practise and effort);
sheer amount and importance (people speak more than they write, writing is resorted to ineducational and formal situation in real life)
-Adults need writing skill for corresponding, taking notes, need it when oral communication id inappropriate
-In school- consolidate what has been done orally, some things written down are better remembered
-For some- writing can be changed, revised, kept as a record
-Writing as a form of therapy (diaries)
1.course validity- ss, parents want to balance their skills, necessary for exams
2.skills training- some ss may need to be fluent and accurate in foreign lang., writing for personal needs
3.study skills- ss may be encourage to keep notes on various classes to come back to them later and revise sth
4.memory- some people remember written text better
5.accuracy- practise and gain more confidence, things presented in context, ss can self-evaluate their performance
6.“rounding off”- writing follows some classroom activities, ss have to write reports or make some notes
7.trensfer of skills- usually some ambitious ss who are good can extend their knowledge in foreign lang. and should be given opportunities to write
Problems with teaching writing
1.strong corelation between writing skills in L1 and L2; ss who have problems in writing in polish have also problems in writing in english.
2.correction- problem of a teacher, time-consuming; assesing essays the T is subjective to some extent;
3.ss are unwilling to write, can refuse to do it and may have excuses (they may have negative feedback) T has to find the solution
Approaches to teaching writing (depend on aims and method/ beliefs of T)
1. The Controlled- to- free Writing Approach (guided writing)
highly controlled, emphasizes on accuracy and fluency of originality; grammar, syntax, mechanics, help ss to master them
Beginners:
-mechanical copying and handwriting
-completing simple sentences
-instead of words there are pictures
-write down some patterns which are true about themselves
-reordering parts of sentences
-matching halves of sentences and write them dawn
-copying with correction
-gap filling
-dictating sentences to the ss
advantages: ss areconcentrated, can correct themselves each other, develop listening and writing, ss are able to write down things that they are familiar with) !!!
disadvantages: time-consuming, just spelling is that what we
emphasize on, unrealistic activity
GUIDING: introduce short model text; oral preparation (ask question revising voc. / structures); ss may generate some ideas
-T may use pictures on the bases of which ss can make up the composition,
-Ss read model text/ passage and summarize it,
-T presents half-dialogies (one person’s part) ss create whole dialogue,
-Combining sentences into more complex one,
-Replying to letters or adverts,
-Parallel writing- form of guided writing, ss are reguired to make
some sentence in the passage, ss get text, read it analyze,
T presents a list of ideas to be included in their writing
Free-writing – equivalent of free conversation, proces how the ss have mastered lang., gives outlet to ss’s imagination/creativity
2. The Free Writing Approach- emphasizes on content and fluency
of expression, write freely on a particular topic, develop their fluency,
form doesn’t matter, they have to who is the audience, important are topics
3. Paragraph- Pattern Approach – emphasizes the organization of writing,
how to organize the discours ss are presenteg with a model
(different kinds of letter); analyze the form of the passage,
T draws attention how the paragraphs are constructed. Activiteis:
-put scrumbled sentence in paragraph order
-guess general and specific information
-insertod delete certain topic for paragraph
4.Comminicatice Approach- follow communicative lang. teaching;
in writing transfering meaning:the audience must be chosen. Ss
need to choose the lang properly, when we write a short
form we don’t care about grammar.
5. Process approach- high school and English courses:
ss are trained to generate ideas for writing, think of the purpose
and audience, write multiple drafts in order to present written products that
communicate their own ideas. T’s role- is treated as a potential reader,
colaborates with ss, gives them some tips;
STAGES:
-generating ideas(preparation on the topic) – conducted in number of way (e.g. brainstorm vocabulary)
-realize what outcome of writing there is, focus on the context not on occuracy, decide what they want to say, select ideas from brainstorming stage
-structuring- requires to reorder inform., ss decide in what chronological order they have to arrange inform.,
-drafting- ss start writing; decide on the best way of beginning/ending of different kinds of text, T discourage ss to translate directly, respond to the context of writing
-evaluating- try to evaluate their work; they react to how the passage is organized, ss have written 1st draft and others peers try to respond to the context of writing; T should establish criteria for ss’s evaluation, ss don’t react to peer’s ideas.
-Reviewing/ second drafting- go back to 1st draft and focus what they want to change/ improve; talk to teacher/ss to find out ideas fos solutions;
-Finished drafts
Points to remember while teaching writing skills:
-make sure that the purpose of writing is clear to the ss
-make sure that the ss have enough input appropriate to their experiences and levels
-teach ss about various discourse patterns, present some models of writing as a source of basis
-give ss sufficient amount of time to generate ideas (bigger writing at home: not expect to rite sth over night, should be limited to amount words
-encourage ss to colaborate to let them make pure evaluation
-give feedback as a reader not as a marker, don’t focus on grammar/vocab mistakes; focus on logical piont and their ideas
Criteria for evaluation of course book writing activities:T should decide weather to use such sctivities or not, because thay may not be effective “do I like the act? Would I use it? Is it appropriate lvl for ss? Will the ss benefit it?” T shouldn’t follow blindly the course book and try to process it.
By Harmer
Why teach writing?
Reinforcement – ss often find it useful to write sentences down using new language shortly after they have studiet it
Language development – the mental activity we have to go through in order to construct proper written text is all part of the ongoing learning experience
Learning style – writing can be a quiet reflective activity instead of the rush and bother of interpersonal face-to-face communication
Writing as a skill – ss need to know how to write letters, how to put written report together, how to reply to advertisements, how to write using electronics media, they need to know some of special conventions (punctuation, paragraph construction, etc)
More writing suggestions:
Ss write letters to a newspaper in response to a controversial article, Ss expand a variety of headlines into newspaper articles (intermediate/advanced)
Ss write/design their own menus; Ss design poster for a party (beginner/lower intermediate)
Ss write a radio news bulletin; Ss write invitations of various kinds (elementary/intermediate)
SS write a letter of application for a job; Ss send e-mail message to other English speakers around the world (any level)
Ss write the description of a room while listening to music (intermediate)