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lock. The serpentine lock at last enablcd the shooter to hołd thc gun with both hands and conccntratc on his aim rather than worrying about placing his burning match square on to thc vent; and the stock allowed him to place the gun on his shoulder and look down the linę of the barrel. By the end of the 15th century handguns were starting to take on a shape that would be familiar to anyone nowadays.

Lead, iron or stone bullets were used, but cast iron bullets were reputcd for their armour-piercing capabilities in the 15th century. Recent tests using simulated 15th century handguns show that iron bullets were quite capable of piercing one-tenth of an inch of mild Steel piąte; lead bullets fared far less well.

Organisation

In early times, all artillery was under the super-vision of regional oflicers called artilleurs du Duc, whose role was partly administrative, partly techni-cal. They were responsible for thc repair and maintenance of guns, and for supplying and organising the fabrication of powdcr and can-nonballs. By the middle of Philip the Bold’s reign, however, the increasing number of guns had led to the creation of a special brced of technicians, thc Maitres des Canons, who rapidly became among the most sought-after and well-paid men in Europę. Their independence and tendency to serve the master who paid most led to the creation of a new civil post in 1415—the Maitre de VArlillerie, who was solely responsible for artillery in the whole State of Burgundy. This became a most powerful position, and 01ivier de la Marche tells us that ‘the Maitre de VArtillerie has such authority that he must be obeyed as ifhe were a princeb This post endured until 1477.

Up to the end of John the Fearless’ reign the Maitre de l’Artillerie was able to.perform his function alone. But widespread war, with Burgundian troops fighting from the Alps to Holland and requiring the acquisition of artillery and munitions on the spot, called for a new group called the Controleurs de l'Artillerie. Attached to any substantial group of troops, the Controleurs de VArtillerie replaced the Maitre de l’Artillerie for all administrative purposes. Their duties included the examination ofpurchases, inventories of local arsenals, assembling artillery for expeditions, and, after each campaign, listing all artillery captured or lost.

After the demise of thc Maitre des Canons, artillery technicians were naturally still requircd, but these were simply artisans who went under the name of canonniers. Their duties were to maintain and repair the guns, and to make powder. Their numbers gradually increased, until in Charles the Bold’s reign there was one canonnier for each ueuglaire or serpentine.

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Powder and Munition

Gunpowder was probably madę of six parts saltpctre, two of charcoal and one of sulphur according to the rccipe of Albertus Magnus (d.1280). In early times these ingredients were simply mixed together for use, usually in situ, as during a voyage the components tended to separate out, with the heaviest sinking to the bottom. The main impr'ovement in powder was the introduction of wet-mixed powder, which probably came about at the end of thc i4th century due to the necessity of mixing the components whcn damp to lessen the risk of ignition. The resulting very intimate mixture led to a considerable improvement in the performance of guns.

Gunpowder was at first extrcmely expensive owing to thc dilliculty of manufacturing saltpetre. The price of a pound of powder in England in 1346 was i8d, but by 1461 it had fallen to 5d thanks to the late-i4th century dcvice of extracting saltpetre from controlled nitre beds—huge compost heaps of earth, dung, urine and limę (the most favoured urine was that of wine-drinkers, and it is said that monasteries contributcd copiously to the pro-duction ofhigh quality gunpowder!). However, the prevalence of superstitious belief in alchemy and magie commonly led to the adulteration of gunpowder with exotic products, usually mercury salts, arsenie and amber.

The quantities of powder used are interesting: at the siege of Calais in 1436 the Burgundian army used io,ooolbs of sulphur and saltpetre in 73 days, giving an average consumption of i6olbs per day. In the middle of the 15th century it seems that most campaign guns were supplied with enough powder for 100-200 shots.

The projectiles shot by guns were at first of stone: masons were employed for cutting these balls and were considered among the most important of craftsmen, being paid in 1399 the same wages as a

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