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‘St. James of Compostella    sword-belt wrapped

ijth century statuę. The    around it. (In situ Amiens

patron Saint ofSpain    Cathedra1; author’s

carries a sheathed sword    photograph)

with a new form ofbuckled

dicating a continuing link with the Carolingian period when German words had dominated much military terminology.

While infantry forces tried to anchor their flanks on obstacles such as woods, rivers or high ground, in open terrain where this was impossible they tended to adopt a ‘crown’ formation: its exact shape remains unknown, but the image suggests that it was ‘spiky’ all round. Morę is known about i2th to i4th century Flemish infantry, who formed up in a solid rectan-gular phalanx but adopted a circular formation if surrounded. Byzantine traditions, which dominated Western warfare until the i ith century, used infantry archers as skirmishers before a battle, to cover the army while it deployed and to protect its flanks. They were rarely formed into ranks, where javelin-armed infantry provided the main ‘missile’ element. In fact it seems that crossbowmen, once they appeared in large numbers, inherited the tactical role of jav-elineers rather than hand-bow archers. By the late i2th century such crossbowmen often fought behind ranks of pikemen, being supported by loaders who spanned their crossbows and thus enabled them to maintain a respectable shooting ratę. Meanwhile light infantry found a role in the i2th to i4th centuries when, armed with smali shields and swords or heavier falchions, they formed up behind men with pikes, axes and other long-hafted weapons. Their task was to attack enemy cavalry if they threatened to break through, or to pursue them if they lost their cohesion. By the late i3th century casualties seem to have been much greater when fighting in northern France, perhaps because of the greater discipline of Flemish infantry militias, than in Southern France where campaigns often took on the character of guerrilla warfare.

Medieval French flags and banners may not have been as developed as those in Byzantium and the Muslim countries, yet they played a role in battlefield identification and control. They also served as rally-ing points and indicated the direction of attack, often being stationed in or slightly ahead of the front rank. Another Western feature was the cantador, singer and speechmaker, who went ahead of an army to maintain its martial ardour, perhaps with extracts from favourite Chansons de Geste. Musical instruments such as the buisine trumpet, corn horn and olifant ivory horn, had also played a role sińce at least the nth century, and the Flemings brought their use in battlefield control to a high degree by the early i4th century. Military drums were much less important in France, those that were mentioned often having names derived from Arabie (for example tabor and nakerys).

The evolution of the typical French medieval armoured horseman, with his couched lance, peaked saddle and straight-legged riding position, depended upon an earlier adoption of horseshoes and breast and crupper straps, most of which came from Central Asia. Stirrups were also important, though perhaps overemphasised, and they again originated in Asia. Stirrups were, in fact, essential when using a spear in the ‘couched lance’ manner locked between the chest and upper arm, but not for the effective use of sword, mace or horseman’s axe.

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