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Artillery

By the middle of the 15th century French manuscript painting was influenced by Renaissance art from Flanders, though it remained medieval in spirit. In this detail from a siege scene madę around 1470 we can see large breech-loading cannon with separate breech-chambers, mounted on wheeled carriages; the further gun has two barrels. Such artillery was certainly available in the later stages of the Hundred Years War. (Histoire de Charles Martel, Bibliotheque Royale, Ms. 8, f.65v, Brussels)

In the 14th century Iow accuracy, relalively light stone cannonballs and a slow ratę of fire did not offer a very serious threat to major fortifications. However, professional gunners certainly developed a rangę of skills which enabled them to command high pay all over Europę. Not the least of these skills was the selting up of cannon, which were normally carried in waggons but fired from positions ernbedded in timber and earth. The loading of a late 14th or early 15th century muzzle-loading gun was a relatively long and complicated business; large ąuantities of loam had to be tamped or gas-tight tampons hammered into the barrel because cannonballs were such a poor fit. In the earliest days up to three-fifths of the barrel of a smaller gun inight be ftlled with powder, while a tampon near the mouth enabled pressure to build up so that hall and tampon burst out of the gun morę like a champagne cork than a projectile from a modern firearm. Because of these shortcomings, the tum of the 14th century saw a fashion for gigandsm - massive bombards which madę up in the weight of their shot what they lacked in accuracy or spced. Such wcapons, and the means to transport them, were only available to the richest armies.

Artillery madę considerable advances during the second quarter of the 15th century, however. Many cannon were now breech-loaders, with several removable breech chambers per gun which could be loaded in advance, thus increasing the ratę of fire considerably. As the quality of gunpowder improved, iron cannonballs also provided a better fit, and longer barrels offered greater muzzle velocity and therefore accuracy with lower powder charges. Since guns did not now have to be casl on such a massive scalę they were easier to transport, and period illustrations often show cannon being fired from wheeled carriages.

The late campaigns

The mid-15th century saw a revival in the importance of infantry, and such troops included increasing numbers of handgunners. At the same time the French continued to rely on cavalry whcn the con-ditions seemed right. At Formigny in 1448 the French defeated a major English attempt to save what was left of their Norman possessions even though the enemy out-numbered them by up to two to one. The French also included a substantial con-tingent of mounted archers - who rode on the march, thus enabling them to cross country at the same speed

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