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particularly charactcnstic of Iialy, Germany and the Ibenan peninsula. In Italy, for example, there was a signilicant increase in the nse of rj u i 1 tecl soft-armours, cuir-bouilli hardened-leather, and leather in combination with other materials. The process of manufacturing cuir-bouilli invoIved soaking the leather in cold water, then shaping it in wooden moulds before preserving, stiffening and waterproofing it with molten wax. Smaller pieces of armour were also madę of yegetable-tanned cattle hide, untanned or partially dressed rawhide, or buff leather. The leather covering of wooden shields was somchimes secured with a form of cheese-paste glue.

Munitions technology required artisans with specialist skills, and these were often grouped into guilds. Within Italy several centres of arms pro-duction emerged, sonie of which may already have been manufacturing armaments throughout the undocumented early Middle Ages. The most important was Milan which soon exported widely. Genoa similarly had an armaments industry with the ferrari (iron-workers) being the second largest group of artisans in the city: the citv’s fanie as a source of armaments though probably reflected its role as a trading port. In nortli-eastern Italy the metalworkers of Venice were subdivided into separate guilds of fabbri (generał smiths), and spadari (swordsmiths) who were linked to the corteleri (cutlers), uagineri (scabbard-makers), frezeri (arrow-makers) and corazzeri (armourers). Here the Tana ropę factory next to the ship-building Arsenał was granted a monopoly for the manufacture of crossbow strings, in order to ensure consistent cjuality.

Central Italy had armaments centres too, such as in Tuscany. In fact armourers from northern Italy may have been frequently imited to Florence in the 12th century, including a family which aclopted the name of Acciajoli or ‘men of steef. This family developed a flour-ishing armour and banking business, rising to positions of prominence and political power in Tuscany,    "—yjj

Naples and Crusader Greece.

Florentine armourers formed a subdivision of the Silk Guild which suggests that they were concerned with trading weaponry rather than manufacturing it.

Those who actually madę armaments were grouped into the minor guilds of spadari (sword) and cuirass-makers, tavolacciai e scudai (shield-makers), and fabbri e calderai (smiths and ‘kettle-makers’ who also madę helmets). Meanwhile

BELOW A page from the late-14th-century Croniche del Codice Lucchese by Sercambi. Here crossbow and other militiamen defend a Lucchese castle. (Archivio di Stato, Lucca)

BOTTOM Another page from Sercambi’s Croniche del Codice Lucchese: Lucca takes Monte Chastagnaro. (Archivio di Stato, Lucca)

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