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Top, helmet of the type found in the ioth-century Gjermundbu grave: bottom, helmet of frame and plates with nasal bar usually associated with the later Norman helmets. (Gerry Embleton)

Reconstruction of a Danish or possibly Jutę shield: the metal decoration each side of the boss probably indicates that there was a leather strap for the forearm as well as the metal hand grip.

langscax, large, single-edged weapons which were virtually swords in their own right.

Archery was popular throughout Scandinavia, and many examples of bows have been found. The Norwegians are rcfcrred to by the chroniclers as famous bowmen; and King Edmund of Anglia was, of course, martyred in 870 by Danes using him as a target. However, it is doubtful if the bow was much used in war prior to the I2th century, and it was probably only used then by the lesser warriors. A yew bow found in Ireland, together with a Viking type of sword, was 185011 long and of D-section. Other examples rangę from 150 to i8ocm. Arrows have also been found, measuring from 61 to 91 cm. Arrowheads have been found in great numbers and are usually ofa narrow leaf-shape, from 10 to 15011 long. The heads are sometimes barbed, mostly tanged, but some are socketed. The four flights were glued in position and secured with tarred twine. Cylindrical cjuivers were used.

Very little is known about the armour worn by Vikings, as there are fcw illustrations and no grave finds have included mail. The mail shirt, described for the Saxons, was probably only ever worn liy the leaders and the warriors in their war bands, and