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temporal power. By the 1330s, however, suci) a generał distinction meant little, and any factional differences merely reflected local rivalries. In fact the Papacy was virtually taken over by France in the 14th cen tury; the Popes submitting to their exile in Avignon from 1309 until the 15th century. The Papai territories as yet hardly existed as a state. Instead they comprised a collection of autonomous enckwes recognising some degree of Papai sovereignty. It was the Kingdom of Naples further south that was the largest (but not neces-sarily the most powerful) state in Italy. Here the feudal system proved strong enough to maintain control over scattered cities, many of which fell into decline while those of the north flourished.

Another remarkable characteristic of medieval Italy was its far-flung overseas trade, which had a significant impact on its scientific and cultural awareness. The link between Genoa and the Islamie world had been strong sińce at least the 12th century. Both Yenice and Genoa established colonies in the eastern Mediterranean, Aegean and Black Seas. Meanwhile Southern Italy still had close links with the Balkans. Italian merchants ranged across medieval Russia and visited China until the fali of the Mongoł Yuan dynasty dis-rupted such contacts. Even so Genoese relations with the Mongoł Khans of Southern Russia remained strong, despite occasional clashes of interest in the Crimea.

These wide-ranging contacts also appear to have had a significant impact on arms, armour and advanced tactical theory. The crossbow and eyeglass were particularly useful new devel-opments, and there were advances too in maritime technology. By the llth century Lombardy had a close knowledge of both Byzantine and Islamie military technolog}', notably in the use of crossbows in siege warfare. In the late-12th century, classical Greek and Roman military texts were translated by Gherardo of Cremona.

This scholarly interest in military matters continued through the 13th and 14th centuries, resulting in the writing of new treatises which reflected Byzantine Greek and Arab-Islamic influences. In fact the

BELOW The medieval waterfront of the city of Cefalu in Sicily, a rare surviving example that demonstrates how houses built on earlier fortifications came right down to th sea’s edge. (Author’s photograph)