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��Morpheme order studies and the Monitor Model Morpheme order studies and the Monitor Model 1 Outline Outline � Morpheme order studies � The Monitor Model 2 Theoretical assumptions Theoretical assumptions " Humans posses an innate language capacity. " Input is necessary to trigger the operation of LAD. " The course of language acquisition is determined by the properties of LAD, i.e. LAD has some kind of an in-built syllabus. " If so, then there must be a natural order (universal sequence) in which structures are acquired. " This assumption was confirmed by Roger Brown s (1973) study of three children (called Adam, Eve and Sarah) acquiring English as L1. " If the same order can be found in L2 acquisition, this means that: LAD operates in L2 acquisition as well, transfer does not play an important role in L2 acquisition. 3 " L1=L2 hypothesis The Dulay & Burt studies The Dulay & Burt studies " Dulay & Burt (1974): a study of 60 Spanish and 55 Chinese children " Hypothesis: If similar patterns of development in L2 can be found in two groups of children with different language backgrounds, it means that developmental factors are more important than L1 influence. " Elicitation measure: picture description task (Bilingual Syntax Measure) " Elicitation procedure: Experimenter (points to baby birds): What are those? Child: Birds. Experimenter (points to a fat man): Why is he so fat? Child: Because he eats too much. 4 Bilingual Syntax Measure (BSM) Bilingual Syntax Measure (BSM) 5 6 Morpheme order studies Morpheme order studies L1 (Brown 1973) L2 (Dulay & Burt 1974) " -ing " the/a " plural -s " copula be " irregular past " -ing " possessive -s " plural -s " the/a " auxiliary be " regular past " regular past " 3rd person -s " irregular past " copula be " possessive -s " auxiliary be " 3rd person -s 7 Conclusions from the Dulay & Burt studies Conclusions from the Dulay & Burt studies " "[T]here does seem to be a common order of acquisition for certain structures in L2 acquisition" (Dulay and Burt, 1973: 256). " The learner's grammar is built by creative construction, i.e. "the subconscious process by which language learners gradually organise the language they hear, according to rules they construct to generate sentences" (Dulay et al. 1982: 11). " "Learners reconstruct rules for the speech they hear, guided by innate mechanisms which cause them to formulate certain types of hypotheses about the language system being acquired until the mismatch between what they are exposed to and what they produce is resolved" (Dulay & Burt, 1978: 67). " Transfer accounts for less than 5% of the errors. 8 The Bailey, Madden & Krashen (1974) study The Bailey, Madden & Krashen (1974) study " The subjects: 33 Spanish adults, 40 adult native speakers of other languages (Greek, Persian, Italian, Turkish, Japanese, Chinese, Thai, Pashto, Hebrew, Arabic, Vietnamese). " Elicitation measure: BSM. 9 Morpheme orders in children and adults Morpheme orders in children and adults Children (Dulay & Burt 1974) Adults (Bailey, Madden & Krashen 1974) " the/a " copula be " -ing " plural -s " auxiliary be " regular past " irregular past " possessive -s " 3rd person -s 10 Critique of morpheme order studies Critique of morpheme order studies " Counter evidence: Larsen-Freeman (1975): Japanese learners of English have lower scores on English articles than other groups, Hakuta (1974): a Japanese child showing a different order of acquisition of grammatical morphemes. " The results may be an artefact of the BSM: Porter (1977) used BSM with native English children aged 2- 4. The results were more similar to L2 acquisition than to L1 acquisition. " Do accuracy orders reflect acquisitional sequences? 11 Does the L1 play a role? Does the L1 play a role? (Dulay & Burt 1974) (Dulay & Burt 1974) 12 Does the L1 play a role? Does the L1 play a role? (Bailey, Madden & Krashen 1974) (Bailey, Madden & Krashen 1974) 13 Some interesting facts Some interesting facts " Morpheme sequences have been found in English, but not in richly inflected languages. " Different tasks (e.g. interview, imitation, writing) elicit different morpheme sequences (Larsen-Freeman 1975). " Instructed and uninstructed learners produce similar morpheme sequences. However, instructed learners are better at plural -s and third person singular -s (Pica 1985). " Morphemes seem to appear with certain words more frequently than with others. For example, for third person singular, look is an easy verb with 17% errors, while eat is difficult with 49% errors (Abraham 1984). 14 Alternative explanations Alternative explanations So, we know that there are certain regularities in language acquisition, but do we have the right explanation for them? " Are morpheme orders due to syntactic complexity? i.e. certain structures are more difficult than others " Are they due to perceptual saliency? e.g. -ing is easy to perceive, -ed is not " Are they due to input frequency? " etc. 15 � Morpheme order studies � The Monitor Model 16 Krashen's Monitor Model Krashen's Monitor Model " The Acquisition-Learning Hypothesis " The Natural Order Hypothesis STEPHEN KRASHEN " The Monitor Hypothesis " The Input Hypothesis " The Affective Filter Hypothesis 17 The Acquisition-Learning Hypothesis The Acquisition-Learning Hypothesis acquisition[is] a process similar, if not identical to the way children develop ability in their first language. Language acquisition is a subconscious process; language acquirers are not usually aware of the fact that they are acquiring language, but are only aware of the fact that they are using the language for communication. The result of language acquisition, acquired competence, is also subconscious. We are generally not consciously aware of the rules of the language we have acquired. Instead, we have a feel for correctness. Grammatical sentences sound right, or feel right, and errors feel wrong, even if we do not consciously know what rule was violated (Krashen 1982: 10) 18 The Acquisition-Learning Hypothesis The Acquisition-Learning Hypothesis learning [...] refer[s] to conscious knowledge of a second language, knowing the rules, being aware of them, and being able to talk about them. In nontechnical terms, learning is knowing about a language, known to most people as grammar , or rules . Some synonyms include formal knowledge of a language or explicit learning (Krashen 1982: 10) 19 The Acquisition-Learning Hypothesis The Acquisition-Learning Hypothesis Acquisition Learning " implicit, subconscious " explicit, conscious " informal situations " formal situations " uses grammatical 'feel' " uses grammatical rules " depends on attitude " depends on aptitude " stable order of acquisition " simple to complex order of learning (Cook, http://homepage.ntlworld.com/vivian.c/Vivian%20Cook.htm) 20 The Natural Order Hypothesis The Natural Order Hypothesis " The rules of language are acquired in a predictable order. " Average order of acquisition of grammatical morphemes for English as an L2 (Krashen 1982: 13): ING (progressive) PLURAL COPULA (to be ) AUXILIARY (progressive, as in he is going ) ARTICLE (a, the) IRREGULAR PAST REGULAR PAST III SINGULAR -s POSSESSIVE -s 21 The Monitor Hypothesis The Monitor Hypothesis " Acquired knowledge and learned knowledge are used differently: acquisition initiates our utterances in a second language and is responsible for our fluency. Learning has only one function, and that is as a Monitor, or editor. Learning comes into play only to make changes in the form of our utterance, after it has been produced by the acquired system. This can happen before we speak or write, or after (self- correction) (Krashen 1982: 15-16) 22 The Monitor Hypothesis The Monitor Hypothesis " Necessary conditions for Monitor use: (i) Time. In order to think about and use conscious rules effectively, a second language performer needs to have sufficient time. For most people, normal conversation does not allow enough time to think about and use rules. The over-use of rules in conversation can lead to trouble, i.e. a hesitant style of talking and inattention to what the conversational partner is saying. (ii) Focus on form. To use the Monitor effectively, time is not enough. The performer must also be focussed on form, or thinking about correctness [...]. Even when we have time, we may be so involved in what we are saying that we do not attend to how we are saying it. (iii) Know the rule. [...] We can be sure that our students are exposed only to a small part of the grammar of the language, and we know that even the best students do not learn every rule they are exposed to. 23 (Krashen 1982: 16) The Input Hypothesis The Input Hypothesis " If acquisition is central and learning peripheral, language pedagogy should encourage acquisition. " [H]umans acquire language in only one way - by understanding messages or by receiving 'comprehensible input " (Krashen, 1985: 2). " Roughly-tuned input: "We move from i, our current level to i + 1, the next level along the natural order, by understanding input containing i + 1" (Krashen, 1985: 2). In other words, language will take care of itself as long as meaningful comprehensible input is provided (Lightbown & Spada 1999: 134). 24 The Input Hypothesis The Input Hypothesis (1) The input hypothesis relates to acquisition, not learning. (2) We acquire by understanding language that contains structure a bit beyond our current level of competence (i + 1). This is done with the help of context or extra-linguistic information. (3) When communication is successful, when the input is understood and there is enough of it, i + 1 will be provided automatically. (4) Production ability emerges. It is not taught directly (Krashen 1982: 21-22) 25 The Affective Filter Hypothesis The Affective Filter Hypothesis " Learners vary with regard to affective factors such as: motivation, self-confidence, anxiety. " The Affective Filter is "a mental block, caused by affective factors [...] that prevents input from reaching the language acquisition device" (Krashen, 1985: 100). " [A]cquirers vary with respect to the strength or level of their Affective Filters. Those whose attitudes are not optimal for second language acquisition will not only tend to seek less input, but they will also have a high or strong Affective Filter - even if they understand the message, the input will not reach that part of the brain responsible for language acquisition, or the language acquisition device. Those with attitudes more conducive to second language acquisition will not only seek and obtain more input, they will also have a lower or weaker filter 26 (Krashen 1982: 31) The Affective Filter Hypothesis The Affective Filter Hypothesis (Krashen 1982: 32) 27 (Cook 1993: 54) 28 Critiques of the Monitor Model Critiques of the Monitor Model " Many of the terms are poorly defined and lacking in empirical support, e.g.: the acquisition/learning distinction. " Many of the arguments are circular, e.g.: anything that leads to acquisition must be comprehensible input, so comprehensible input is whatever leads to acquisition, Monitor use accounts for deviations from the natural order, so deviations from the natural order are taken as evidence of the operation of the Monitor. Thus, the claims cannot be empirically tested and are not falsifiable. " Many of the constructs are lacking in explanatory power, e.g.: how could the Affective Filter filter out 3rd person singular? 29 Critiques of the Monitor Model Critiques of the Monitor Model " Mitchell & Myles (1998: 126): "it is not clear how the learner's present state of knowledge (i) is to be characterised, or indeed whether the i+1 formulation is intended to apply to all aspects of language, from lexis to phonology and syntax." " Gregg (1984: 94): "each of Krashen's hypotheses is marked by serious flaws: undefinable or ill-defined terms, unmotivated constructs, lack of empirical content and thus of falsifiability, lack of explanatory power" " McLaughlin (1987: 56): "Krashen has not defined his terms with enough precision, the empirical basis of the theory is weak, and the theory is not clear in its predictions)" " Ellis (1985: 266): the Monitor Model "poses serious theoretical problems regarding the validity of the 'acquisition-learning' distinction, the operation of Monitoring, and the explanation of variability in language-learner language" 30

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