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��Chomsky s influence on early SLA research: Error Analysis, interlanguage, morpheme order studies 1 The advent of Error Analysis (EA) " Error Analysis grew out of Contrastive Analysis. " It acknowledged inadequacies of CA: Some of the errors predicted by CA did not materialize in actual learner production. Learners made errors that CA could not predict. This means that the source of these errors must be other than transfer from the L1. Moreover, some of the errors L2 learners made were identical to errors made by L1 acquiring children. " CA dealt with comparing grammatical sentences in two languages. EA studied the actual errors L2 learners made. 2 Differences between CA and EA CA EA " CA focused on surface-level " EA focused on underlying structures rules " language learning was seen " language was seen as a as habit formation rule-governed behaviour " proper teaching was seen as " language learning essential to learning mechanisms were separate from other cognitive mechanisms, so teaching was less important actually some learners could learn despite bad teaching methods " errors were studied in order " structures were compared in to understand the learning order to prevent errors and process better facilitate teaching 3 Corder, S. Pit. 1967. The significance of learners errors . IRAL 5 (4): 161-170. " Errors are not bad habits resulting from L1 interference. " They are a product of: rules in the learner system, and language learning strategies. " The L2 learner s underlying knowledge of the language is his transitional competence, which is a linguistic system in its own right. " Errors are systematic. They reflect lack of L2 competence, often being a product of an incorrect rule. " Mistakes are non-systematic. They are an artefact of linguistic performance, and not a product of defective knowledge of the L2. They may be due to memory lapses, physical states, such as tiredness and psychological conditions such as strong emotion (Corder 1967 [1974]: 24). Mistakes can usually be self- corrected by the learner. 4 Corder, S. Pit. 1967. The significance of learners errors . IRAL 5 (4): 161-170. A learner s errors, then, provide evidence of the system of the language that he is using (i.e. has learned) at a particular point in the course (and it must be repeated that he is using some system, although it is not yet the right system). They are significant in three different ways. First to the teacher, in that they tell him, if he undertakes a systematic analysis, how far towards the goal the learner has progressed and, consequently, what remains for him to learn... 5 Corder, S. Pit. 1967. The significance of learners errors . IRAL 5 (4): 161-170. A learner s errors, then, provide evidence of the system of the language that he is using (i.e. has learned) at a particular point in the course (and it must be repeated that he is using some system, although it is not yet the right system). They are significant in three different ways. First to the teacher, in that they tell him, if he undertakes a systematic analysis, how far towards the goal the learner has progressed and, consequently, what remains for him to learn. Second, they provide to the researcher evidence of how language is learned or acquired, what strategies or procedures the learner is employing in his discovery of the language... So, in a sense, errors provide a window into a learner s mind. 6 Corder, S. Pit. 1967. The significance of learners errors . IRAL 5 (4): 161-170. A learner s errors, then, provide evidence of the system of the language that he is using (i.e. has learned) at a particular point in the course (and it must be repeated that he is using some system, although it is not yet the right system). They are significant in three different ways. First to the teacher, in that they tell him, if he undertakes a systematic analysis, how far towards the goal the learner has progressed and, consequently, what remains for him to learn. Second, they provide to the researcher evidence of how language is learned or acquired, what strategies or procedures the learner is employing in his discovery of the language. Thirdly (and in a sense this is their most important aspect) they are indispensable to the learner himself, because we can regard the making of errors as a device the learner uses in order to learn. It is a way the learner has of testing his hypotheses about the nature of the language he is learning. The making of errors then is a strategy employed both by children acquiring their mother tongue and by 7 those learning a second language. (Corder 1967 [1974]: 25) Corder, S. Pit. 1967. The significance of learners errors . IRAL 5 (4): 161-170. Similarity between L2 and L1 acquisition: Mother: Did Billy have his egg cut up for him at breakfast? Child: Yes, I showeds him. Mother: You what? Child: I showed him. Mother: You showed him? Child: I seed him. Mother: Ah, you saw him. Child: Yes, I saw him. (Corder 1967 [1974]: 25-26, no age given) 8 Corder, S. Pit. 1967. The significance of learners errors . IRAL 5 (4): 161-170. Similarity between L2 and L1 acquisition: Mother: Did Billy have his egg cut up for him at breakfast? Child: Yes, I showeds him. Mother: You what? Child: I showed him. Mother: You showed him? Child: I seed him. Mother: Ah, you saw him. Child: Yes, I saw him. (Corder 1967 [1974]: 25-26, no age given) 9 Procedure for Error Analysis (Corder 1974) 1. Collection of a sample of learner language. oral or written; conversation, letter, essay, etc. 2. Identification of errors. cf. errors vs. mistakes; mistakes excluded from analysis 3. Description of errors. language level (phonological, morphological, syntactic, etc.) linguistic category (negative, passive; article, preposition, etc.) 4. Explanation of errors. interlingual ( between languages ) - due to transfer from L1, intralingual ( within language ), i.e. developmental - similar to L1 acquisition, due to incomplete acquisition of a rule or overgeneralization (e.g. I seed him.). 5. Evaluation of errors. e.g. To what extent the error affects intelligibility or social 10 acceptability? Example: A story told by an adult French learner of English (Ellis 1997:16) One day an Indian gentleman, a snake charmer, arrived in England by plane. He was coming from Bombay with two pieces of luggage. The big of them contained a snake. A man and a little boy was watching him in the customs area. The man said to the little boy Go and speak with this gentleman. When the little boy was speaking with the traveller, the thief took the big suitcase and went out quickly. When the victim saw that he cried Help me! Help me! A thief! A thief! The policeman was in this corner whistle but it was too late. The two thieves escape with the big suitcase, took their car and went in the traffic. They passed near a zoo and stop in a forest. There they had a big surprise. The basket contain a big snake. 11 Example: A story told by an adult French learner of English (Ellis 1997:16) One day an Indian gentleman, a snake charmer, arrived in England by plane. He was coming from Bombay with two pieces of luggage. The big of them contained a snake. A man and a little boy was watching him in the customs area. The man said to the little boy Go and speak with this gentleman. When the little boy was speaking with the traveller, the thief took the big suitcase and went out quickly. When the victim saw that he cried Help me! Help me! A thief! A thief! The policeman was in this corner whistle but it was too late. The two thieves escape with the big suitcase, took their car and went in (?) the traffic. They passed near a zoo and stop in a forest. There they had a big surprise. The basket contain a big snake. 12 Example: Explaining and evaluating errors One day an Indian gentleman, a snake charmer, arrived in England by plane. He was coming from Bombay with two pieces of luggage. The big of them contained a snake. A man and a little boy was watching him in the customs area. The man said to the little boy Go and speak with this gentleman. When the little boy was speaking with the traveller, the thief took the big suitcase and went out quickly. When the victim saw that he cried Help me! Help me! A thief! A thief! The policeman was in this corner whistle but it was global error - violates the overall structure of the sentence and makes it difficult to process too late. The two thieves escape with the big suitcase, took their car and went in (?) the traffic. They passed near a zoo and stop in a forest. There they had a big surprise. The basket contain a big snake. mistake? Systematic omissions (of the past tense ending); local errors that do not affect the structure of the whole sentence; overgeneralization of present tense form 13 Shortcomings of Error Analysis " Ambiguity in classification What is an error, what is a mistake? Which errors are interlingual, which are developmental? " e.g. No speak. No understand. " Lack of positive data Focus on errors tells us nothing about what the learner has acquired. " Potential for avoidance Learners may avoid using difficult structures and thus avoid making errors as well. " e.g. Chinese and Japanese L1 speakers make few errors in relative clauses because they avoid using them in English. 14 Outline v� Error Analysis v� Interlanguage v� Morpheme order studies 15 Independent grammars assumption (Cook 1993) " Child language: the child is not a defective speaker of adult language, but should be treated as a speaker of a language of his/her own, language produced by a child is product of an underlying system of rules, the child s linguistic system has to be discovered from the child s speech. " Learner language: learner language is product of an underlying system of rules, a learner at a particular point in time is using a language system that is neither L1 nor L2, the learner s language is to be discovered from the actual mistakes the learner makes. 16 Independent grammars assumption in practice: Learner language as system " transitional competence (Corder 1967) " idiosyncratic dialect (Corder 1971) " approximative system (Nemser 1971) " interlanguage (Selinker 1972) " Learner speech at a given time is the patterned product of a linguistic system, La [approximative language], distinct from Ls [source language] and Lt [target language] and internally structured (Nemser 1971 [1974]: 56). 17 Interlanguage (IL) LARRY SELINKER The basic assumption in SLA research is that learners create a language system, known as an interlanguage (IL). This system is composed of numerous elements, not the least of which are elements from the NL and the TL. What is important is that the learners themselves impose structure on the available linguistic data and formulate an internalized system. (Gass & Selinker, 2001: 12) Interlanguage refers to the separateness of a second language learner s system, a system that has a structurally intermediate status between the native and target languages. (Brown, 2000: 215) 18 Characteristics of interlanguage Interlanguage is: " systematic " dynamic " variable " reduced in form and function 19 Fossilization Central to the concept of interlanguage is the concept of fossilization which generally refers to the cessation of learning [...] Because of the difficulty in determining when learning has ceased, one frequently refers to stabilization of linguistic forms, rather than fossilization or cessation of learning. In SLA, one often notes that interlanguage plateaus are far from the TL norms. (Gass & Selinker, 2001, p. 12) Example of fossilized error: German learners pronunciation of /w/ as /v/ in English, e.g. /svi:t/ for /swi:t/. Only 5% L2 learners manage to avoid fossilization and become 20 native-like (Selinker 1972). Five central IL processes (Selinker 1972) " language transfer projection of L1 features on to the L2 e.g. ride on a bicycle " overgeneralization of L2 rules attempts to use L2 rules in ways which it does not permit e.g. drive a bicycle What did he intended to say? " transfer of training when teaching creates rules that are not part of the L2 e.g. the use of he for both he and she Yes, they aren t. " strategies of L2 learning e.g. simplification " communication strategies e.g. It was O nice, nice trailer, O big one. 21 (Cook 2006) 22 (Cook 2006) 23 Recap: What is the nature of interlanguage? " A learner's interlanguage is the learner's system of rules/assumptions/hypotheses about how the target language works. " The learner's interlanguage (i.e., rules/assumptions/hypotheses) changes over time and with increased exposure to the target language. " The learner's interlanguage will contain some rules that are identical to those of a native speaker, but will differ in many or most respects. " The rules/assumptions/hypotheses in the learner's interlanguage may have multiple sources, such as the learner's native language, his/her innate language endowment, generalizations based on experience with the target language, and creative hypotheses. " The learner's interlanguage will become progressively more complex through increased experience in the target language, and it will also become gradually more native-like, but this isn't always directly observable on the basis of the types and numbers of errors that learners produce. " Few learners progress all the way to native-like proficiency in all areas of the target language, although many learners do become fully functional in all relevant domains of target-language use. 24 The significance of the interlanguage concept for SLA The interlanguage concept provided SLA research with an identifiable field of study that belonged to no one else (Cook 1993: 19). [W]hat gave SLA its excitement was the concept of interlanguage (Davies, Criper & Howatt 1984: xii). 25 Problems with the interlanguage perspective L1__ ......................... __L2 Interlanguage " Where does interlanguage begin? " Where does learning stop? " Why do some learners fossilize more than others? " Can you become a native speaker of the L2? Interlanguage is deficient by definition (Kasper and Kellerman 1997) e.g. Conrad, Nabokov " What is the target language ? e.g. RP, Estuary English, regional varieties? e.g. parts of Africa, South and South East Asia " Should all learners aim at becoming native-like? questions of identity and belonging non-native varieties of English such as Indian English 26 " Should success be measured against native speaker norms? Outline v� Error Analysis v� Interlanguage v� Morpheme order studies 27 Theoretical assumptions " Humans posses an innate language capacity. " Input is necessary to trigger the operation of LAD. " The course of language acquisition is determined by the properties of LAD, i.e. LAD has some kind of an in-built syllabus. " If so, then there must be a natural order (universal sequence) in which structures are acquired. " This assumption was confirmed by Roger Brown s (1973) study of three children (called Adam, Eve and Sarah) acquiring English as L1. " If the same order can be found in L2 acquisition, this means that: LAD operates in L2 acquisition as well, transfer does not play an important role in L2 acquisition. 28 " Dulay & Burt (1974): a study of 60 Spanish and 55 Chinese children 29 Morpheme order studies L1 (Brown 1973) L2 (Dulay & Burt 1974) " -ing " the/a " plural -s " copula be " irregular past " -ing " possessive -s " plural -s " the/a " auxiliary be " regular past " regular past " 3rd person -s " irregular past " copula be " possessive -s " auxiliary be " 3rd person -s 30 Conclusions from the Dulay & Burt studies " "[T]here does seem to be a common order of acquisition for certain structures in L2 acquisition" (Dulay and Burt, 1973: 256). " The learner's grammar is built by creative construction, i.e. "the subconscious process by which language learners gradually organise the language they hear, according to rules they construct to generate sentences" (Dulay et al. 1982: 11). " "Learners reconstruct rules for the speech they hear, guided by innate mechanisms which cause them to formulate certain types of hypotheses about the language system being acquired until the mismatch between what they are exposed to and what they produce is resolved" (Dulay & Burt, 1978: 67). 31 Further reading: Obligatory: Saville-Troike, Muriel. 2006. Introducing second language acquisition. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, pp. 37-44. Cook, Vivian. 1993. Linguistics and second language acquisition. Houndmills, HA: Macmillan, pp. 13-24. Recommended: Corder, S. Pit. 1967. The significance of learners errors . IRAL 5 (4): 161-170. [Reprinted in: Jack C. Richards. 1974. Error Analysis. Perspectives on second language acquisition. London: Longman, pp. 19-27.] LX La, Err 1 Selinker, Larry. 1972. Interlanguage . IRAL 10 (3): 209-231. [Reprinted in: Jack C. Richards. 1974. Error Analysis. Perspectives on second language acquisition. London: Longman, pp. 31-54.] LX La, Err 1 32

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