Second Language Acquisition

Week #17:

Learning Strategies

and

Ambiguity Tolerance

1

0. Outline

1. Individual learner differences and

language learning

2. Defining learning strategies
3. Types of learning strategies
4. Learning strategies – a résumé
5. Ambiguity tolerance

2

3

MODALITY

PREFERENCES

• visual
• auditory
• kinaesthetic

FL

APTITUDE

components
• phonemic

coding

• language

analytic

• memory
aptitudinal
preference
• memory vs.

analytic

L

EARNING

STYLE

• analytic vs.

holistic

• visual vs.

verbal

• active vs.

passive

L

EARNING

S

TRATEGIES

• metacognitive
• cognitive
• social-

affective

LANGUAGE

LEARNING

(Skehan 2000: 268; Pavičić Takač 2008: 45)

1. Individual learner differences
and language learning

2. Defining learning strategies

Among researchers, there is no consensus as to
whether

cognitive styles

and

learning styles

refer to the same concepts, or whether

intelligence

and

aptitude

overlap.

There is also controversy as to whether

learning strategies

can be distinguished from

ordinary learning activities.

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2. Defining learning strategies

Rebecca Oxford (2011) defines a

learning

strategy

as "a deliberate attempt to

manage and control efforts toward a
learning goal" (p. 288).

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2. Defining learning strategies

(Oxford 1990: 8)

Learning strategies

are specific actions taken by

the learner to make learning

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and more transferrable to new situations.

easier

faster

more enjoyable

more self-directed

more effective

2. Defining learning strategies

A

learning strategy

is:



a specific method of approaching a
problem or a task



a planned design for controlling and
manipulating information

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2. Defining learning strategies

A

learning strategy

is a conscious action

or behaviour that a student engages in,
in order to make his or her learning
more effective and efficient

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2. Defining learning strategies

Learner strategy instruction

(

training

)

refers to teaching effective plans, so
that learners can use adequate study
skills and thus become more self-
directed and autonomous

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3. Types of learning strategies

(

I

) C

OGNITIVE

S

TRATEGIES

involving direct manipulation

of the learning material

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resourcing

repetition

grouping

deduction

imagery

auditory

representation

keyword method

elaboration

transfer

inferencing

note taking

translation

3. Types of learning strategies

(

II

) M

ETACOGNITIVE

S

TRATEGIES

involving knowledge about

or regulation of cognition

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planning

one's

learning

monitoring one's

output and

comprehension

evaluating

one's

learning

3. Types of learning strategies

(

III

) S

OCIOAFFECTIVE

S

TRATEGIES

seeking output opportunities

in social interaction

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asking for

repetition

or

explanation

questioning

for

clarification

negotiating

meaning

4. Learning strategies – a résumé

The outcomes of research into learning
strategies can be summed up as follows (Pavičić
Takač 2008: 45):

• L2 acquisition is

similar to learning of other

complex cognitive skills

;

• learning strategies reflect

conscious efforts

the learner invests in L2 learning and enable
the learner to control the learning process;

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4. Learning strategies – a résumé

• the process of

L2 acquisition is different from

the L1 acquisition

:

whereas L1 is acquired by means of an inborn
language acquisition capacity in a mostly
predetermined order, L2 acquisition is governed by
the use of learning strategies and is characterised
by diverse acquisition patterns;

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4. Learning strategies – a résumé

• learning strategies

affect L2 acquisition

process

, its success or failure;

• learning strategies are a

source

of individual

learner differences;

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4. Learning strategies – a résumé

• learning strategies are the individual learner

characteristic that is seen as the most

amenable to change

:

learning strategies can be taught and practised until
their use becomes automatic, i.e. until learners
become skilled and fast strategy users.

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5. Ambiguity tolerance

Tolerance of ambiguity is the degree to
which an individual is cognitively
prepared to tolerate concepts, ideas
and propositions that conflict with
his/her own inner belief system or
structure of knowledge (Ely 1989).

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5. Ambiguity tolerance

Ambiguity directly refers to anything in
L2 that is

perceived as vague,

incomplete and lacking consistency

.

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5. Ambiguity tolerance

It stems from the fact that L1 and L2 are
usually significantly different systems,
as regards their structure, lexis,
phonology and spelling.

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5. Ambiguity tolerance

It is essential for language learners to
be able to

accommodate any

explanations or rules that run counter
to the ones already accepted

and

internalized at earlier stages of study.

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5. Ambiguity tolerance

The optimum level of ambiguity
tolerance is not high, but

moderate

.

Too much acceptance of vagueness and
wishy-washiness is undesirable.

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5. Ambiguity tolerance

Too high a level of ambiguity tolerance may
lead a language student not only to accept
every linguistic proposal and believe that
indeed "anything goes", but also to make
false assumptions about the system of L2.

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Thank you

for your

attention

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