Lecture IX – Morphology

II

Derivation and inflection

Derivation and inflection

15th, October, 2008

15th, October, 2008

Structure of the talk



Derivation – definition

Derivation – definition



Derivational affixes

Derivational affixes



Constraints on derivation

Constraints on derivation



Two classes of derivational affixes

Two classes of derivational affixes



Compounding – properties of compounds

Compounding – properties of compounds



Other types of word formation: conversion,

Other types of word formation: conversion,

clipping, blends, backformation, acronyms,

clipping, blends, backformation, acronyms,

onomatopoeia, coinage

onomatopoeia, coinage



Inflection- definition

Inflection- definition



Inflectional affixes

Inflectional affixes



Inflection versus derivation

Inflection versus derivation

Semantic classes of prefixes in
English



Time – pre-, after-, e.g.

Time – pre-, after-, e.g.

prearrange,

prearrange,

aftershock

aftershock



Number – bi-, tri-, multi-, e.g.

Number – bi-, tri-, multi-, e.g.

bilingual,

bilingual,

tricycle, multicultural

tricycle, multicultural



Place – in-, inter-, e.g.

Place – in-, inter-, e.g.

inbuilt, interbreed

inbuilt, interbreed



Degree – super-, over-, e.g.

Degree – super-, over-, e.g.

supersensitive,

supersensitive,

overconfident

overconfident



Privation – a-, un-, e.g.

Privation – a-, un-, e.g.

amoral, unlock

amoral, unlock



Negation – un- anti-, e.g.

Negation – un- anti-, e.g.

unwise, antisocial

unwise, antisocial



Size – micro-, mini-,e.g.

Size – micro-, mini-,e.g.

microchip, miniskirt

microchip, miniskirt

Morphological realisation
rules



Agglutinative rule – two morphemes are realised

Agglutinative rule – two morphemes are realised

by morphs which remain distinct, e.g.

by morphs which remain distinct, e.g.

writer + s

writer + s

> writers

> writers



Fusional rule – two morphemes are realised by

Fusional rule – two morphemes are realised by

morphs that don’t remain distinct, but are fused

morphs that don’t remain distinct, but are fused

together, e.g.

together, e.g.

tooth > teeth

tooth > teeth



Null realisation rule – a morpheme is never

Null realisation rule – a morpheme is never

realised as a morph in any word of the relevant

realised as a morph in any word of the relevant

class, e.g.

class, e.g.

work + present > work

work + present > work



Zero rule – a morpheme is realised as a zero

Zero rule – a morpheme is realised as a zero

morph in particular members of a word class,

morph in particular members of a word class,

e.g.

e.g.

sheep + plural > sheep

sheep + plural > sheep

Derivation



Derivation – a process of forming a

Derivation – a process of forming a

word with a meaning and/or

word with a meaning and/or

category distinct from that of its

category distinct from that of its

base through the addition of an

base through the addition of an

affix, e.g.

affix, e.g.

drive

drive

vs.

vs.

driver

driver

,

,

employ

employ

vs.

vs.

employment

employment



Derived forms become

Derived forms become

independent lexical items.

independent lexical items.

Some derivational affixes

Complex derivation



Cases when derivation applies more

Cases when derivation applies more

than once or, in other words, when

than once or, in other words, when

several affixes are added.

several affixes are added.



Sometimes it can be difficult to

Sometimes it can be difficult to

determine in what order affixes are

determine in what order affixes are

attached to the root, e.g.

attached to the root, e.g.

unkindness

unkindness



Derivation never produces

Derivation never produces

nonwords such as *

nonwords such as *

nonsmoke

nonsmoke

Complex derivation

Which derivation is
possible?

Constraints on derivation



The affix –ant can combine with

The affix –ant can combine with

Latinate words, e.g.

Latinate words, e.g.

defendant,

defendant,

assailant, servant

assailant, servant

, but not with

, but not with

fight, teach

fight, teach



The suffix –en can be attached to

The suffix –en can be attached to

monosyllabic words ending in a

monosyllabic words ending in a

consonant, e.g.

consonant, e.g.

white – whiten,

white – whiten,

soft – soften

soft – soften

, but not

, but not

blue - *bluen

blue - *bluen

Two classes of
derivational affixes



Class 1 affixes – trigger changes in the

Class 1 affixes – trigger changes in the

preceding consonant or vowel segment

preceding consonant or vowel segment

of the base, e.g.

of the base, e.g.

electric – electricity,

electric – electricity,

democrat – democracy, product –

democrat – democracy, product –

production

production



Class 2 affixes – do not trigger any

Class 2 affixes – do not trigger any

changes in the base, e.g.

changes in the base, e.g.

black –

black –

blackness, care – careful, yellow -

blackness, care – careful, yellow -

yellowish

yellowish

Derivational affixes of
Class 1

Derivational affixes of
Class 2

Compounding



Compounding – the combination of two lexical categories

Compounding – the combination of two lexical categories

(nouns, verbs, prepositions, adjectives).

(nouns, verbs, prepositions, adjectives).



The rightmost morpheme determines the lexical category a

The rightmost morpheme determines the lexical category a

given compound belongs to. This segment is referred to as

given compound belongs to. This segment is referred to as

the head.

the head.



Examples:

Examples:

greenhouse, breastfeed

greenhouse, breastfeed

,

,

nationwide

nationwide



Most compounds are stressed on the first element (in

Most compounds are stressed on the first element (in

particular A-N)

particular A-N)

greenhouse – a green house

greenhouse – a green house



Tense and plural markers are attached to the second

Tense and plural markers are attached to the second

element, e.g.

element, e.g.

fox hunters, breastfed

fox hunters, breastfed

,

,



Exceptions:

Exceptions:

passers-by, mathers-in-law

passers-by, mathers-in-law



Complex compounds – a compound + a inflexional affix, e.g.

Complex compounds – a compound + a inflexional affix, e.g.

fox hunters, babysitting, figureheads

fox hunters, babysitting, figureheads

Other types of word formation



Conversion (zero derivation) – assigns an existing word to a new

Conversion (zero derivation) – assigns an existing word to a new

lexical category, e.g.

lexical category, e.g.

work – work, lecture – lecture, perfect – perfect

work – work, lecture – lecture, perfect – perfect



Clipping – dropping part of the word, e.g.

Clipping – dropping part of the word, e.g.

exam – examination

exam – examination

,

,

prof.

prof.

– professor, phys-ed – physical education, flu – influenza, fridge –

– professor, phys-ed – physical education, flu – influenza, fridge –

refridgerator, burger - hamburger

refridgerator, burger - hamburger



Blends – words created from non-morphemic of two already existing

Blends – words created from non-morphemic of two already existing

items, e.g.

items, e.g.

brunch, smog, telethon

brunch, smog, telethon



Backformation – a word formed by removing a real or supposed affix,

Backformation – a word formed by removing a real or supposed affix,

e.g.

e.g.

resurection – resurect, housekeeper – housekeep, swindler –

resurection – resurect, housekeeper – housekeep, swindler –

swindle

swindle



Acronyms and alphabetisms, e.g.

Acronyms and alphabetisms, e.g.

UNICEF, NATO, AIDS vs. CNN,

UNICEF, NATO, AIDS vs. CNN,

VIP, USSR

VIP, USSR



Onomatopoeic words are supposed to resemble some ‘sounds of

Onomatopoeic words are supposed to resemble some ‘sounds of

nature’. English examples:

nature’. English examples:

buzz, bow-wow, meaw

buzz, bow-wow, meaw



Coinage (word manufacture) – words created from scratch, e.g.

Coinage (word manufacture) – words created from scratch, e.g.

Kodak, Nike, Adidas

Kodak, Nike, Adidas

Inflection



Inflection – the modification of a

Inflection – the modification of a

word’s form to indicate the

word’s form to indicate the

grammatical subclass to which it

grammatical subclass to which it

belongs. The modification is realised

belongs. The modification is realised

by means of affixation, suppletion or

by means of affixation, suppletion or

internal change)

internal change)



Importantly, the changes produce

Importantly, the changes produce

contrasts between singular versus

contrasts between singular versus

plural as well as past versus non-past.

plural as well as past versus non-past.

English inflectional affixes

Inflection versus
derivation



Inflection does not change either the

Inflection does not change either the

grammatical category or the meaning of a word

grammatical category or the meaning of a word



Ordering – inflection applies after derivation, e.g.

Ordering – inflection applies after derivation, e.g.

modern – modernize – modernized not

modern – modernize – modernized not

*modernedize, black – blacken – he blackens not

*modernedize, black – blacken – he blackens not

he * blacksen

he * blacksen



Productivity – the relative freedom with which

Productivity – the relative freedom with which

inflectional affixes combine with words belonging

inflectional affixes combine with words belonging

to the appropriate category, e.g. –s can be

to the appropriate category, e.g. –s can be

attached to virtually any noun or verb, whereas

attached to virtually any noun or verb, whereas

derivational affixes are considerably more

derivational affixes are considerably more

constrained in this respect, e.g. –ize, -ment.

constrained in this respect, e.g. –ize, -ment.

References



Brinton, Laurel J. 2000.

Brinton, Laurel J. 2000.

The structure of

The structure of

modern English

modern English

. Amsterdam: John Benjamins

. Amsterdam: John Benjamins

Publishing Company.

Publishing Company.



Radford, Andrew – Atkinson, Martin – Britain,

Radford, Andrew – Atkinson, Martin – Britain,

David – Clahsen, Harald – Spencer, Andrew.

David – Clahsen, Harald – Spencer, Andrew.

1999.

1999.

Linguistics

Linguistics

. Cambridge University Press.

. Cambridge University Press.



O’Grady, William – Dobrovolsky, Michael –

O’Grady, William – Dobrovolsky, Michael –

Katamba, Francis. (1996).

Katamba, Francis. (1996).

Contemporary

Contemporary

linguistics

linguistics

. London: Pearson Education Limited

. London: Pearson Education Limited

.

.