Lecture IX – Morphology
II
Derivation and inflection
Derivation and inflection
15th, October, 2008
15th, October, 2008
Lecture IX – Morphology
II
Derivation and inflection
Derivation and inflection
15th, October, 2008
15th, October, 2008
Structure of the talk
Derivation – definition
Derivation – definition
Derivational affixes
Derivational affixes
Constraints on derivation
Constraints on derivation
Two classes of derivational affixes
Two classes of derivational affixes
Compounding – properties of compounds
Compounding – properties of compounds
Other types of word formation: conversion,
Other types of word formation: conversion,
clipping, blends, backformation, acronyms,
clipping, blends, backformation, acronyms,
onomatopoeia, coinage
onomatopoeia, coinage
Inflection- definition
Inflection- definition
Inflectional affixes
Inflectional affixes
Inflection versus derivation
Inflection versus derivation
Semantic classes of prefixes in
English
Time – pre-, after-, e.g.
Time – pre-, after-, e.g.
prearrange,
prearrange,
aftershock
aftershock
Number – bi-, tri-, multi-, e.g.
Number – bi-, tri-, multi-, e.g.
bilingual,
bilingual,
tricycle, multicultural
tricycle, multicultural
Place – in-, inter-, e.g.
Place – in-, inter-, e.g.
inbuilt, interbreed
inbuilt, interbreed
Degree – super-, over-, e.g.
Degree – super-, over-, e.g.
supersensitive,
supersensitive,
overconfident
overconfident
Privation – a-, un-, e.g.
Privation – a-, un-, e.g.
amoral, unlock
amoral, unlock
Negation – un- anti-, e.g.
Negation – un- anti-, e.g.
unwise, antisocial
unwise, antisocial
Size – micro-, mini-,e.g.
Size – micro-, mini-,e.g.
microchip, miniskirt
microchip, miniskirt
Morphological realisation
rules
Agglutinative rule – two morphemes are realised
Agglutinative rule – two morphemes are realised
by morphs which remain distinct, e.g.
by morphs which remain distinct, e.g.
writer + s
writer + s
> writers
> writers
Fusional rule – two morphemes are realised by
Fusional rule – two morphemes are realised by
morphs that don’t remain distinct, but are fused
morphs that don’t remain distinct, but are fused
together, e.g.
together, e.g.
tooth > teeth
tooth > teeth
Null realisation rule – a morpheme is never
Null realisation rule – a morpheme is never
realised as a morph in any word of the relevant
realised as a morph in any word of the relevant
class, e.g.
class, e.g.
work + present > work
work + present > work
Zero rule – a morpheme is realised as a zero
Zero rule – a morpheme is realised as a zero
morph in particular members of a word class,
morph in particular members of a word class,
e.g.
e.g.
sheep + plural > sheep
sheep + plural > sheep
Derivation
Derivation – a process of forming a
Derivation – a process of forming a
word with a meaning and/or
word with a meaning and/or
category distinct from that of its
category distinct from that of its
base through the addition of an
base through the addition of an
affix, e.g.
affix, e.g.
drive
drive
vs.
vs.
driver
driver
,
,
employ
employ
vs.
vs.
employment
employment
Derived forms become
Derived forms become
independent lexical items.
independent lexical items.
Some derivational affixes
Complex derivation
Cases when derivation applies more
Cases when derivation applies more
than once or, in other words, when
than once or, in other words, when
several affixes are added.
several affixes are added.
Sometimes it can be difficult to
Sometimes it can be difficult to
determine in what order affixes are
determine in what order affixes are
attached to the root, e.g.
attached to the root, e.g.
unkindness
unkindness
Derivation never produces
Derivation never produces
nonwords such as *
nonwords such as *
nonsmoke
nonsmoke
Complex derivation
Which derivation is
possible?
Constraints on derivation
The affix –ant can combine with
The affix –ant can combine with
Latinate words, e.g.
Latinate words, e.g.
defendant,
defendant,
assailant, servant
assailant, servant
, but not with
, but not with
fight, teach
fight, teach
The suffix –en can be attached to
The suffix –en can be attached to
monosyllabic words ending in a
monosyllabic words ending in a
consonant, e.g.
consonant, e.g.
white – whiten,
white – whiten,
soft – soften
soft – soften
, but not
, but not
blue - *bluen
blue - *bluen
Two classes of
derivational affixes
Class 1 affixes – trigger changes in the
Class 1 affixes – trigger changes in the
preceding consonant or vowel segment
preceding consonant or vowel segment
of the base, e.g.
of the base, e.g.
electric – electricity,
electric – electricity,
democrat – democracy, product –
democrat – democracy, product –
production
production
Class 2 affixes – do not trigger any
Class 2 affixes – do not trigger any
changes in the base, e.g.
changes in the base, e.g.
black –
black –
blackness, care – careful, yellow -
blackness, care – careful, yellow -
yellowish
yellowish
Derivational affixes of
Class 1
Derivational affixes of
Class 2
Compounding
Compounding – the combination of two lexical categories
Compounding – the combination of two lexical categories
(nouns, verbs, prepositions, adjectives).
(nouns, verbs, prepositions, adjectives).
The rightmost morpheme determines the lexical category a
The rightmost morpheme determines the lexical category a
given compound belongs to. This segment is referred to as
given compound belongs to. This segment is referred to as
the head.
the head.
Examples:
Examples:
greenhouse, breastfeed
greenhouse, breastfeed
,
,
nationwide
nationwide
Most compounds are stressed on the first element (in
Most compounds are stressed on the first element (in
particular A-N)
particular A-N)
greenhouse – a green house
greenhouse – a green house
Tense and plural markers are attached to the second
Tense and plural markers are attached to the second
element, e.g.
element, e.g.
fox hunters, breastfed
fox hunters, breastfed
,
,
Exceptions:
Exceptions:
passers-by, mathers-in-law
passers-by, mathers-in-law
Complex compounds – a compound + a inflexional affix, e.g.
Complex compounds – a compound + a inflexional affix, e.g.
fox hunters, babysitting, figureheads
fox hunters, babysitting, figureheads
Other types of word formation
Conversion (zero derivation) – assigns an existing word to a new
Conversion (zero derivation) – assigns an existing word to a new
lexical category, e.g.
lexical category, e.g.
work – work, lecture – lecture, perfect – perfect
work – work, lecture – lecture, perfect – perfect
Clipping – dropping part of the word, e.g.
Clipping – dropping part of the word, e.g.
exam – examination
exam – examination
,
,
prof.
prof.
– professor, phys-ed – physical education, flu – influenza, fridge –
– professor, phys-ed – physical education, flu – influenza, fridge –
refridgerator, burger - hamburger
refridgerator, burger - hamburger
Blends – words created from non-morphemic of two already existing
Blends – words created from non-morphemic of two already existing
items, e.g.
items, e.g.
brunch, smog, telethon
brunch, smog, telethon
Backformation – a word formed by removing a real or supposed affix,
Backformation – a word formed by removing a real or supposed affix,
e.g.
e.g.
resurection – resurect, housekeeper – housekeep, swindler –
resurection – resurect, housekeeper – housekeep, swindler –
swindle
swindle
Acronyms and alphabetisms, e.g.
Acronyms and alphabetisms, e.g.
UNICEF, NATO, AIDS vs. CNN,
UNICEF, NATO, AIDS vs. CNN,
VIP, USSR
VIP, USSR
Onomatopoeic words are supposed to resemble some ‘sounds of
Onomatopoeic words are supposed to resemble some ‘sounds of
nature’. English examples:
nature’. English examples:
buzz, bow-wow, meaw
buzz, bow-wow, meaw
Coinage (word manufacture) – words created from scratch, e.g.
Coinage (word manufacture) – words created from scratch, e.g.
Kodak, Nike, Adidas
Kodak, Nike, Adidas
Inflection
Inflection – the modification of a
Inflection – the modification of a
word’s form to indicate the
word’s form to indicate the
grammatical subclass to which it
grammatical subclass to which it
belongs. The modification is realised
belongs. The modification is realised
by means of affixation, suppletion or
by means of affixation, suppletion or
internal change)
internal change)
Importantly, the changes produce
Importantly, the changes produce
contrasts between singular versus
contrasts between singular versus
plural as well as past versus non-past.
plural as well as past versus non-past.
English inflectional affixes
Inflection versus
derivation
Inflection does not change either the
Inflection does not change either the
grammatical category or the meaning of a word
grammatical category or the meaning of a word
Ordering – inflection applies after derivation, e.g.
Ordering – inflection applies after derivation, e.g.
modern – modernize – modernized not
modern – modernize – modernized not
*modernedize, black – blacken – he blackens not
*modernedize, black – blacken – he blackens not
he * blacksen
he * blacksen
Productivity – the relative freedom with which
Productivity – the relative freedom with which
inflectional affixes combine with words belonging
inflectional affixes combine with words belonging
to the appropriate category, e.g. –s can be
to the appropriate category, e.g. –s can be
attached to virtually any noun or verb, whereas
attached to virtually any noun or verb, whereas
derivational affixes are considerably more
derivational affixes are considerably more
constrained in this respect, e.g. –ize, -ment.
constrained in this respect, e.g. –ize, -ment.
References
Brinton, Laurel J. 2000.
Brinton, Laurel J. 2000.
The structure of
The structure of
modern English
modern English
. Amsterdam: John Benjamins
. Amsterdam: John Benjamins
Publishing Company.
Publishing Company.
Radford, Andrew – Atkinson, Martin – Britain,
Radford, Andrew – Atkinson, Martin – Britain,
David – Clahsen, Harald – Spencer, Andrew.
David – Clahsen, Harald – Spencer, Andrew.
1999.
1999.
Linguistics
Linguistics
. Cambridge University Press.
. Cambridge University Press.
O’Grady, William – Dobrovolsky, Michael –
O’Grady, William – Dobrovolsky, Michael –
Katamba, Francis. (1996).
Katamba, Francis. (1996).
Contemporary
Contemporary
linguistics
linguistics
. London: Pearson Education Limited
. London: Pearson Education Limited
.
.