Lecture XI

Syntax II

Syntax II

December 13th, 2008

December 13th, 2008

Structure of the lecture



Transformations: yes-no questions, wh

Transformations: yes-no questions, wh

movement, do insertion

movement, do insertion



Constraints on transformations

Constraints on transformations



Coordination

Coordination



Other types of syntactic analysis

Other types of syntactic analysis

Transformations



Transformations – various syntactic

Transformations – various syntactic

operations performed to make questions.

operations performed to make questions.



In some languages (e.g. Polish, Spanish)

In some languages (e.g. Polish, Spanish)

rising intonation is used to make

rising intonation is used to make

questions.

questions.



Basic operations include:

Basic operations include:



inversion in yes-no questions

inversion in yes-no questions



wh-movement

wh-movement



do insertion

do insertion

Yes-no questions



In many English sentences the main verb is

In many English sentences the main verb is

preceded by an auxiliary:

preceded by an auxiliary:



The girl can knit. He will change his job

The girl can knit. He will change his job

.

.



In such cases the process of making a yes-no

In such cases the process of making a yes-no

question consists of two steps:

question consists of two steps:

1.

1.

Forming a structure where the auxiliary occupies

Forming a structure where the auxiliary occupies

its normal Infl position.

its normal Infl position.

2.

2.

Applying a transformation rule that moves the

Applying a transformation rule that moves the

auxiliary to the left of the subject

auxiliary to the left of the subject

Can the girl ___ knit? Will he ___ change his job

Can the girl ___ knit? Will he ___ change his job

?

?

Deep and surface
structures



Sentences should be analysed be means of two distinct

Sentences should be analysed be means of two distinct

mechanisms, namely the XP rule and transformations.

mechanisms, namely the XP rule and transformations.



The XP rule determines the internal structure of

The XP rule determines the internal structure of

phrases

phrases



Transformations can modify tree structures by moving

Transformations can modify tree structures by moving

an element from one position to another.

an element from one position to another.



This transformational analysis shows that there are

This transformational analysis shows that there are

two levels of syntactic structure:

two levels of syntactic structure:



Deep structure – formed by the XP rule in accordance

Deep structure – formed by the XP rule in accordance

with the properties of the head

with the properties of the head



Surface structure – the final syntactic form of a

Surface structure – the final syntactic form of a

structure that results from the application of a

structure that results from the application of a

syntactic rule.

syntactic rule.

Wh movement



Which book should the student borrow?

Which book should the student borrow?



What can they talk about?

What can they talk about?



It can be argued that the deep structures of the

It can be argued that the deep structures of the

sentences above are:

sentences above are:



The student should borrow which book.

The student should borrow which book.



They can talk about what.

They can talk about what.



Since sentences such as the ones below are incomplete

Since sentences such as the ones below are incomplete

without a NP. after borrow and about

without a NP. after borrow and about

The students should borrow.

The students should borrow.

They can talk about.

They can talk about.

the wh phrases clearly fulfil the complement function in

the wh phrases clearly fulfil the complement function in

these sentences.

these sentences.

Wh movement – tree
structure

Do insertion rules



The men played a game of chess

The men played a game of chess



Since in the sentence Infl contains an abstract

Since in the sentence Infl contains an abstract

(invisible) tense marker, there is no element to

(invisible) tense marker, there is no element to

be moved.

be moved.



English circumvents the problem by using the

English circumvents the problem by using the

auxiliary did

auxiliary did



An auxiliary is inserted into the empty Infl

An auxiliary is inserted into the empty Infl

position

position

Constraints on
transformations



The no branch crossing restrtiction states that

The no branch crossing restrtiction states that

only adjacent constituents can form a

only adjacent constituents can form a

constituent, hence there are no discontinuous

constituent, hence there are no discontinuous

constituents.

constituents.



The

The

single mother restriction

single mother restriction

states that no

states that no

expression can be a constituent of two different

expression can be a constituent of two different

expressions unless one is a constituent of the

expressions unless one is a constituent of the

other, i.e. no node can have more than one

other, i.e. no node can have more than one

mother (Tajsner 2003: 27).

mother (Tajsner 2003: 27).



The coordinate structure constraint – no element

The coordinate structure constraint – no element

can be moved from a subject phrase.

can be moved from a subject phrase.

Illustration of constraint I

Illustration of constraint II

Illustration of constraint
III



No element can be removed from a

No element can be removed from a

coordinate structure (a phrase in

coordinate structure (a phrase in

which a word such as

which a word such as

and

and

or

or

or

or

joins

joins

together categories of the same type)

together categories of the same type)

The author may write [a story or a

The author may write [a story or a

poem].

poem].

What might the author write [a story

What might the author write [a story

or ___]?

or ___]?

Coordination



A common syntactic operation that consists in

A common syntactic operation that consists in

grouping together two or more categories of the

grouping together two or more categories of the

same type, e.g.

same type, e.g.



Coordination of NPs – [the boy] and [the girl]

Coordination of NPs – [the boy] and [the girl]



Coordination of VPs – [read] or [write]

Coordination of VPs – [read] or [write]



Coordination of PPs – [along the street] and [round

Coordination of PPs – [along the street] and [round

the corner]

the corner]



Coordination of Aps – [very beautiful] but

Coordination of Aps – [very beautiful] but

[unapproachable]

[unapproachable]



Coordination of Ss – [The man entered the

Coordination of Ss – [The man entered the

building] but [the woman waited in the car]

building] but [the woman waited in the car]

Other types of syntactic
analysis



Transformational syntax is not the only

Transformational syntax is not the only

type of syntactic analysis used in

type of syntactic analysis used in

contemporary linguistics. The

contemporary linguistics. The

alternative methods are:

alternative methods are:

-

relational analysis – focuses on

relational analysis – focuses on

grammatical relations such as subject

grammatical relations such as subject

and direct object

and direct object

-

functional analysis – concentrates on

functional analysis – concentrates on

the way in which syntactic structure is

the way in which syntactic structure is

used to communicate information

used to communicate information

The passive



The boy fed the dog.

The boy fed the dog.



The dog was fed by the boy.

The dog was fed by the boy.



The agent (doer) and the theme (the

The agent (doer) and the theme (the

entity affected by the verb)

entity affected by the verb)



The former sentence is active

The former sentence is active

because the agent is the subject,

because the agent is the subject,

whereas the latter is passive in

whereas the latter is passive in

recognition of the fact that the theme

recognition of the fact that the theme

is the subject

is the subject

Relational analysis



The key point of relational analysis is that some

The key point of relational analysis is that some

syntactic phenomena are best described in terms of

syntactic phenomena are best described in terms of

grammatical relations between subject and direct object

grammatical relations between subject and direct object



The English passive has two distinct properties:

The English passive has two distinct properties:



Contains the auxiliary be and the past participle

Contains the auxiliary be and the past participle



The order of the agent and theme in passive is the

The order of the agent and theme in passive is the

reverse of that found in active sentences.

reverse of that found in active sentences.



This seems to be a universal tendency (exceptions

This seems to be a universal tendency (exceptions

include Tzotzil and Mandarin Chinese)

include Tzotzil and Mandarin Chinese)



What all languages have in common is the fact that the

What all languages have in common is the fact that the

subject of the active sentence becomes part of a PP (a

subject of the active sentence becomes part of a PP (a

NP. with a preposition is said to be oblique)

NP. with a preposition is said to be oblique)

Functional analysis



Seeks to understand syntactic structures

Seeks to understand syntactic structures

in terms of their communicatice function

in terms of their communicatice function



Active and corresponding passive

Active and corresponding passive

structures have the same meaning, but

structures have the same meaning, but

they differ in how they present the

they differ in how they present the

situation

situation



Passive structures de-emphasise the role

Passive structures de-emphasise the role

of the agent and foreground the theme

of the agent and foreground the theme

Primary, secondary and functional
categories



Parts of speech – primary gramatical

Parts of speech – primary gramatical

categories

categories



Tense, mood, case, gender, person,

Tense, mood, case, gender, person,

voice – secondary grammatical

voice – secondary grammatical

categories

categories



The traditional syntactic notions of

The traditional syntactic notions of

subject, predicate, etc are referred to

subject, predicate, etc are referred to

as functional grammatical categories

as functional grammatical categories

Person



The category of person is definable with reference to

The category of person is definable with reference to

the notion of participant-roles.

the notion of participant-roles.



First person singular is used by the speaker to refer

First person singular is used by the speaker to refer

to him/herself, the second person singular is used to

to him/herself, the second person singular is used to

refer to the hearer and the third person is used to

refer to the hearer and the third person is used to

refer to persons or things other than the speaker and

refer to persons or things other than the speaker and

hearer, etc.

hearer, etc.



It is noteworthy that some languages distinguish

It is noteworthy that some languages distinguish

genders in the third person plural, e.g. oni – one, ellos

genders in the third person plural, e.g. oni – one, ellos

– ellas.

– ellas.



Person is considered to be a category of the verb and

Person is considered to be a category of the verb and

is marked in the inflectional form of the verb.

is marked in the inflectional form of the verb.

Number



Most languages distinguish between

Most languages distinguish between

singular and plural and as such is a

singular and plural and as such is a

category of the noun

category of the noun



Classical Greek, Sanskrit and some

Classical Greek, Sanskrit and some

Slavonic languages have a dual number

Slavonic languages have a dual number

used to refer to two objects

used to refer to two objects



Fijian also has a trial number in addition

Fijian also has a trial number in addition

to singular, dual and plural

to singular, dual and plural



Secondary recategorisation – pluralising

Secondary recategorisation – pluralising

uncountable nouns, e.g.

uncountable nouns, e.g.

different wines

different wines

Person and number
agreement



When one category is inflected to

When one category is inflected to

mark properties (e.g. person,

mark properties (e.g. person,

number) of another, the first category

number) of another, the first category

is said to agree with the second

is said to agree with the second



Since in Polish, Russian, Spanish

Since in Polish, Russian, Spanish

Italian and many other languages

Italian and many other languages

verbs are conjugated, there is no

verbs are conjugated, there is no

need to mention the subject.

need to mention the subject.

Gender



In the Indo-European language family the traditional

In the Indo-European language family the traditional

names for the genders are: masculine, feminine and

names for the genders are: masculine, feminine and

neuter

neuter



Languages differ considerably in this respect: the

Languages differ considerably in this respect: the

nouns of French, Italian and Spanish are classified

nouns of French, Italian and Spanish are classified

into to genders, those of Russian, Polish and German

into to genders, those of Russian, Polish and German

into three, those of English have just one.

into three, those of English have just one.



There is always some natural, semantic basis for this

There is always some natural, semantic basis for this

classification, not necessarily sex.

classification, not necessarily sex.



Some of the possible natural properties giving rise to

Some of the possible natural properties giving rise to

the classification are: shape, colour, edibility, etc.

the classification are: shape, colour, edibility, etc.



In Swahili and many other Bantu languages there are

In Swahili and many other Bantu languages there are

at least 6 genders

at least 6 genders

Case



A morphological category that encodes

A morphological category that encodes

information about an element’s

information about an element’s

grammatical role (subject, direct

grammatical role (subject, direct

object, etc.) (e.g. the difference

object, etc.) (e.g. the difference

between he and him)

between he and him)



Each case tends to have a typical

Each case tends to have a typical

syntactic function and occupy the

syntactic function and occupy the

same position in the grammatical

same position in the grammatical

structure of a language

structure of a language

Grammatical functions



Subjective

Subjective

(nominative)

(nominative)



Objective (accusative)

Objective (accusative)



Indirect objective

Indirect objective

(dative)

(dative)



Adnominal possessive

Adnominal possessive

(genitive)

(genitive)



instrumental’

instrumental’



Agentive

Agentive



comitative

comitative



Bill died

Bill died



John killed Bill

John killed Bill



John gave Tom the

John gave Tom the

book

book



It is Harry’s pencil

It is Harry’s pencil



John killed Bill with a

John killed Bill with a

knife

knife



Bill was killed by

Bill was killed by

John with a knife.

John with a knife.



John went to town

John went to town

with Marry

with Marry

Tense



Tense is a category that encodes the

Tense is a category that encodes the

time of an event with reference to the

time of an event with reference to the

moment of speaking

moment of speaking



English – past and non-past

English – past and non-past



Spanish – past, present and future

Spanish – past, present and future



ChiBemba – remote past (before

ChiBemba – remote past (before

yesterday), removed past (yesterday),

yesterday), removed past (yesterday),

near past (earlier today), immediate

near past (earlier today), immediate

past (just happened)

past (just happened)

Mood



Devices for marking sentences according to the speaker’s

Devices for marking sentences according to the speaker’s

commitment with respect to factual status of what he is saying

commitment with respect to factual status of what he is saying

(his emphatic certainty, his uncertainty or doubt, etc.)

(his emphatic certainty, his uncertainty or doubt, etc.)



The unmarked mood (usual, most frequent) is indicative or

The unmarked mood (usual, most frequent) is indicative or

declarative.

declarative.



Imperative sentences do not make statements but express

Imperative sentences do not make statements but express

orders or instructions. They are usually associated with the

orders or instructions. They are usually associated with the

second person.

second person.



Interrogative sentences – in many languages they have the

Interrogative sentences – in many languages they have the

same word order as declaratives but a different intonational

same word order as declaratives but a different intonational

pattern.

pattern.



Subjunctive mood – marks the attitude of the speaker, usually

Subjunctive mood – marks the attitude of the speaker, usually

connected with expressing wishes, possibility, neccesity and

connected with expressing wishes, possibility, neccesity and

obligation

obligation

Subject, predicate and
adjunct



The major constituents of a simple

The major constituents of a simple

declarative sentence are subject and

declarative sentence are subject and

predicate. These are necessary elements

predicate. These are necessary elements

of a sentence and form its nucleus.

of a sentence and form its nucleus.



Adjuncts are extraneuclear elements, i.e.

Adjuncts are extraneuclear elements, i.e.

their removal does not destroy the

their removal does not destroy the

grammaticality of a sentence.

grammaticality of a sentence.



[John] [killed Bill] [in Central Park] [on Sunday morning]

[John] [killed Bill] [in Central Park] [on Sunday morning]

.

.



S Pr Ad Ad

S Pr Ad Ad

Adjuncts vs. complements



The difference between an adjunct

The difference between an adjunct

and a complement boils down to the

and a complement boils down to the

fact that the former is an optional

fact that the former is an optional

element, while the latter and

element, while the latter and

obligatory constituent of a sentence.

obligatory constituent of a sentence.



The demonstration was on Sunday.

The demonstration was on Sunday.



The demonstration occurred on

The demonstration occurred on

Sunday.

Sunday.

Transitivity and ergavity



Transitivity – the action expressed by the

Transitivity – the action expressed by the

verb is ‘passed over’ from the doer to the

verb is ‘passed over’ from the doer to the

‘patient’.

‘patient’.



According to this criterion, verbs can be

According to this criterion, verbs can be

divided into intransitive (

divided into intransitive (

John died

John died

),

),

transitive (

transitive (

John killed Bill

John killed Bill

) and ditransitive

) and ditransitive

(

(

Tom gave Mary the book

Tom gave Mary the book

)

)



Ergativity – a system in which the subject of

Ergativity – a system in which the subject of

an intransitive verb and the direct object of a

an intransitive verb and the direct object of a

transitive verb have the same case-inflection.

transitive verb have the same case-inflection.