LANGUAGE ACQUISITION
Competence vs Performance
Competence is a speaker's inner knowledge of the language as manifest in his ability to produce and to understand a theoretically infinite number of sentences most of which he may have never seen or heard before. In simple words, it our knowledge of how our language works. It's non-observable.
Performance is the speaker's actual realisation of his competence. It's observable,concrete and very often imperfect (slips of the tongue,mistakes etc). It embraces all of the skills (reading,speaking,listening and writing) and also the comprehension of other people's speech.
Competence and performance decrease when a speaker does not use the language, when they are ill (brain damage - aphasia) or after various substances (drugs,alcohol etc). Performance can also decrease when the speaker is under pressure or stress.
2.Behaviourist approach.
Behaviourists account for learning in terms of imitation, practice, reinforment (or feedback on succes), and habit formation. According to them all learning, whether verbal or non-verbal, takes place through the same underlying proccess. Learners receive linguistic input from speakers in their environment and they form 'associations' between words and objects or events. These associations become stronger as experiences and repeated (habit formation).
This is used in the audiolingual method (the method as such is not widely used nowadays since it has a lot of disadvantages[odsylam do glotto:P] but the elements of it are used in the communication approach very often) where students are supposed to respond to the given stimuli, they imitate what is said to them, practice it and then it becomes their habit. (example: Student: I meet her yesterday. Teacher: Oh, you MET her yesterday? Repeat once again. Student: I met her yesterday.)
Behaviourism was often linked to the Contrastive Analysis Hypothesis which says that if there are similarities between the first language and the target language, the learner will aquire target language with ease. If there are differences, they will have difficulty.
This is used when teaching beginners sounds(pronunciation), for intance. At first they are taught the sounds that are similar to the ones from the mother tongue and later those that are non-existing in it (and that's why problematic), for example the th-sound is problematic for polish people because it's not used in their language. (odsylam do przykladowej lekcji The Silent Way w Larsen-Freeman, ktora przerabialismy z Szostak,tam tez bylo to pokazane - dzieci najpierw uczone byly dzwiekow podobnych do tych ktore wystepowaly w ich, portugalskim, jezyku)
3.Comprehension vs Production.
Comprehension is our ability to understand the language, to see the differences in it but simultaneously we are not neccessarilly able to produce the language ourselves.
Production - we are able to produce language ourselves.
Comprehension is superior to production!
Examples from the foreign language lesson:
comprehension: multiple-choice tests where students are given the key and distractors, they just have to differentiate between them and decide about the correct answer-they don't have to produce any language
production:cloze tests -students have to fill in the gaps in a text with an apprioprate word- they have to come up with it (produce it) themselves
4. The role of input.
a. in a first language aquisition
According to the bevaviourists (described in 2.) we need an input to imitate in order to aquire the language. Children imitate what is said to them and when given positive feedback (praise or just a succesful communication) form a habit from it. (example: Mother: Would you like some bread and peanut butter? Child: Some bread and peanut butter.)
According to innatists (e.g Chomsky) children have some innate, in-born ability to speak that in one point it's triggered (by giving the child the samples of the language) and from then on the imupt is not very needed. That's why correcting children's mistakes is very often uneffective. ( Example: Child: I putted in on the table. Mother: You mean you put it one the table? Child: No, I putted in on the table.)
b. in a second language aquisition
Krashen claims that the only way to aquire the second language is to be exposed to comprehensible input .If the input contains forms and structures just beyond the learner's current level of competence in the language ('i+1') [in simple words the language is new but we can uderstand what it denotes], then both comprehension and acquisition will occur. If we cannot understand anything in the input, we won't make any progress (jak na niemieckim).
5. What is Critical Period Hypothesis ? Provide arguments for and against.
CPH is the notion that there is a specific and limited time period for language acquisition. Lenneberg observed that the language acquisition device, like biological functions, works successfully only when it is stimulated at the right time - a time called the `critical period.' This period ranges from the age about 18 months up to the age of adolescence.
In the late fifties and sixties, Penfield and Roberts( 1959) and Lenneberg (1967) were the first who propose that there is a critical period for language acquisition. They based their idea on the pieces of evidence:
evidence from feral and abused children who grew up without being exposed to human language in childhood and who did not acquire language normally after they were found,
evidence from deaf children whose development in spoken language stopped after puberty,
evidence that children with aphasia (the loss of the ability to understand or produce speech, because of brain damage) recovered much better than adults with aphasia.
All this evidence concerns acquisition of the first language. If we want to investigate the second language acquisition, Lenneberg also made a claim about that, namely : `Most individuals of average intelligence are able to learn a second language after the beginning of their second decade, although the incidence of “language-learning-blocks” rapidly increases after puberty. Also automatic acquisition from mere exposure to a given language seems to
disappear after this age, and foreign languages have to be taught and learned through a conscious and labored effort.'
Argument for : the best evidence for the CPH is that virtually every child learns language on a schedule which is very similar in spite of quite different circumstances of life.
Arguments against: although the evidence mentioned above seems to be support for the CPH, it is simply difficult to confirm that hypothesis on the basis of cases of such unusual children and the unknown circumstances of their early lives. Also, we do not know other factors besides biological maturity (e.g. social isolation or physical abuse) might have contributed to their inability to learn language.
6. The concept of `language ego.' Why it is so important in developing a second language? How it is related to the Critical Period Hypothesis ?
In learning a language, one adopts a "language ego" which refers to the way in which one's self-concept and sense of self-esteem are intertwined with language and the degree to which, in language transactions, one's ego is exposed. As children grow mentally and emotionally, they slowly develop an individual identity and an emotional bond with their parents based in part on a shared language.
The term `language ego' introduced by Guiora is a kind of linguistic version of Freudian notion. Essentially, to learn a second language is to take on a new identity. The issue of language ego is relevant in light of the acculturation that often accompanies language learning. Language is expressions of one's thought and value systems which are reflections of culture where the language is being spoken. When learning another language, the established ego is at stake and one's self-esteem becomes fragile. The language ego theory suggests that inhibition plays a powerful role in constraining achievement. In order to develop the second language ego, one has to fight against inhibition, and a teacher should try to lower the level of classroom inhibition and foster students' mature defense mechanisms.
Unlike CPH, the language ego permeability theory argues that changes largely result from socialization than maturation. This hypothesis starts from understanding that an individual will present different aspects of his or her self, depending on how he or she wishes others to perceive interaction.
9. Name some activities you consider to be rote and others that are meaningful in foreign language classes. Do some of them fall in the grey area between the two? Evaluate their effectiveness.
Rote tasks are mechanical actions, like walking down a street, pushing a button, vacuuming a floor. They require little or no practical attention, so they're easy to combine without compromising their effectiveness. Rote learning: mechanistic learning that is not connected to previous knowledge and experience. Rote activities : reciting the alphabet over and over, copying letters, tracing numbers, rote drills, rote dialogues, reciting rules, practising patterns.
Meaningful learning refers to the concept that the learned knowledge (lets say a fact) is fully understood by the individual and that the individual knows how that specific fact relates to other stored facts (stored in your brain that is).When meaningful learning occurs (using our example of 5 math facts) the facts are stored in a relational manner. That is, the brain stores them together because they are related to each other. Now, when one fact is recalled, the other facts are also recalled at that moment (or shortly thereafter). In other words, recalling fact #5 activates the memory for facts #2 and #4, and this in turn leads to recalling facts #1 and #3. This phenomenon is called the spread of activation. Meaningful activities: problem-solving, analysing why sth happened, visiting musea (They will better understand how large the dinosaurs really were if they have seen actual dinosaur's skeletons at a museum of natural history), relating piece of literature to the thoughts, feelings, and experiences of students themselves.
Research clearly indicates that meaningful learning is more effective than rote learning.
Meaningfull learning is more effective because the information is stored in long-term memory. When we use words like comprehension of understanding, we are talking about meaningful learning. The more information a student has already stored in long-term memory the easier it is for that student to learn new information, because there more things with which that new information can be associated.
10. Provide examples of language activities or techniques that foster at least 6 of Gardner's 8 types of intelligences.
Types of intelligences:
Linguistic intelligence involves sensitivity to spoken and written language, the ability to learn languages, and the capacity to use language to accomplish certain goals. This intelligence includes the ability to effectively use language to express oneself rhetorically or poetically; and language as a means to remember information. Writers, poets, lawyers and speakers are among those that Howard Gardner sees as having high linguistic intelligence.
Logical-mathematical intelligence consists of the capacity to analyze problems logically, carry out mathematical operations, and investigate issues scientifically. In Howard Gardner's words, it entails the ability to detect patterns, reason deductively and think logically. This intelligence is most often associated with scientific and mathematical thinking.
Musical intelligence involves skill in the performance, composition, and appreciation of musical patterns. It encompasses the capacity to recognize and compose musical pitches, tones, and rhythms. According to Howard Gardner musical intelligence runs in an almost structural parallel to linguistic intelligence.
Bodily-kinesthetic intelligence entails the potential of using one's whole body or parts of the body to solve problems. It is the ability to use mental abilities to coordinate bodily movements. Howard Gardner sees mental and physical activity as related.
Spatial intelligence involves the potential to recognize and use the patterns of wide space and more confined areas.
Interpersonal intelligence is concerned with the capacity to understand the intentions, motivations and desires of other people. It allows people to work effectively with others. Educators, salespeople, religious and political leaders and counsellors all need a well-developed interpersonal intelligence.
Intrapersonal intelligence entails the capacity to understand oneself, to appreciate one's feelings, fears and motivations. In Howard Gardner's view it involves having an effective working model of ourselves, and to be able to use such information to regulate our lives.
Naturalist intelligence enables human beings to recognize, categorize and draw upon certain features of the environment. It 'combines a description of the core ability with a characterization of the role that many cultures value
Activities that foster them:
Visual-Spatial - think in terms of physical space, as do architects and sailors. Very aware of their environments. They like to draw, do jigsaw puzzles, read maps, daydream. They can be taught through drawings, verbal and physical imagery. Tools include models, graphics, charts, photographs, drawings, 3-D modeling, video, videoconferencing, television, multimedia, texts with pictures/charts/graphs.
Bodily-kinesthetic - use the body effectively, like a dancer or a surgeon. Keen sense of body awareness. They like movement, making things, touching. They communicate well through body language and be taught through physical activity, hands-on learning, acting out, role playing. Tools include equipment and real objects.
Musical - show sensitivity to rhythm and sound. They love music, but they are also sensitive to sounds in their environments. They may study better with music in the background. They can be taught by turning lessons into lyrics, speaking rhythmically, tapping out time. Tools include musical instruments, music, radio, stereo, CD-ROM, multimedia.
Interpersonal - understanding, interacting with others. These students learn through interaction. They have many friends, empathy for others, street smarts. They can be taught through group activities, seminars, dialogues. Tools include the telephone, audio conferencing, time and attention from the instructor, video conferencing, writing, computer conferencing, E-mail.
Intrapersonal - understanding one's own interests, goals. These learners tend to shy away from others. They're in tune with their inner feelings; they have wisdom, intuition and motivation, as well as a strong will, confidence and opinions. They can be taught through independent study and introspection. Tools include books, creative materials, diaries, privacy and time. They are the most independent of the learners.
Linguistic - using words effectively. These learners have highly developed auditory skills and often think in words. They like reading, playing word games, making up poetry or stories. They can be taught by encouraging them to say and see words, read books together. Tools include computers, games, multimedia, books, tape recorders, and lecture.
Logical -Mathematical - reasoning, calculating. Think conceptually, abstractly and are able to see and explore patterns and relationships. They like to experiment, solve puzzles, ask cosmic questions. They can be taught through logic games, investigations, mysteries. They need to learn and form concepts before they can deal with details.
11. How is linguistic aptitude important in the process of foreign language learning and teaching?
Students with higher linguistic aptitude have got some abilities developed better than other students:
a) phonetic coding - ability to segment and identify distinct sounds, to form associations between those sounds and symbols representing them, and to retain these associations. This is a rather unique auditory component of foreign language aptitude. It is especially important in classes that emphasize spoken language.
b) grammatical sensitivity - the ability to recognize the grammatical function of words or other linguistic structures in sentences. This component may be especially important in classes that emphasize an analytical approach to learning a foreign language.
c) rote learning
d) inductive language learning ability- the ability to infer the rules that govern the use of language.
All mentioned factors have a great impact on 2L learning. They influence the process of 2L teaching because the teacher needs to use different techniques with students with lower linguistic aptitude and different techniques with students with higher one.
12. What is the role of transfer in foreign language development?
Some errors that second-language learners make in their speech originate in their first language. For exa mple, Spanish speakers learning English may say "Is raining" rather than "It is raining", leaving out the subject of the sentence. French speakers learning English, however, do not usually make the same mistake. This is because sentence subjects can be left out in Spanish, but not in French. This influence of the first language on the second is known as language transfer It refers to speakers or writers applying knowledge from their native language to a second language. It is most commonly discussed in the context of English language learning and teaching, but it can occur in any situation when someone does not have a native-level command of a language, as when transalting into a second language.
When the relevant unit or structure of both languages is the same, linguistic interference can result in correct language production called positive transfer — "correct" meaning in line with most native speakers' notions of acceptability. An example is the use of cognates. Note, however, that language interference is most often discussed as a source of errors known as negative transfer . Negative transfer occurs when speakers and writers transfer items and structures that are not the same in both languages. Within the theory of contrastive analysis (the systematic study of a pair of languages with a view to identifying their structural differences and similarities), the greater the differences between the two languages, the more negative transfer can be expected.
The results of positive transfer go largely unnoticed, and thus are less often discussed. Nonetheless, such results can have a large effect. Generally speaking, the more similar the two languages are, and the more the learner is aware of the relation between them, the more positive transfer will occur. Such an approach has the disadvantage of making the learner more subject to the influence of " false friends".
17. Describe the concept of ambiguity tolerance and its role in foreign language learning
Ambiguity tolerance - something inborn; a personal predisposition to accept ambiguity more willingly or to be more resistant to accept it; this feature is rather stable
In terms of language learning, the learners need to be tolerant of ambiguity while their learning because of, for example, the contradiction between their native language and the second language, some exceptions in the rule of second language, the cultural differences between their native culture and target culture, and so on.
High ambiguity tolerance
+
Students with a high AT feel comfortable with learning a new language with its uncertainties and unknown structural and cultural norms to be dealt with; generally they deal with ambiguous new stimuli without frustration
They are more willing to take risk and are open to change; are creative in using the target language
Research on AT proves that Ss with higher ambiguity tolerance show higher level of achievement
Ss with higher AT are able to guess from context, so are more successful in listening and reading comprehension, as well as in communication
_
- Ss with a high AT show unquestioned acceptance - they accept all they hear and see as correct
- They do not get into details
- They cannot effectively make the second language ruler integrated with the whole language system but they just use meaningless chunks learned by rote.
Again it is not good to be extremely tolerant or intolerant. It is generally suggested that a moderate level of tolerance of ambiguity should be beneficial for effective language learning. Ambiguity tolerance is good for communication, whereas ambiguity intolerance is better for studying language in detail.
18. Describe the concept of reflectivity and impulsivity and its role in foreign language development.
People have different personality tendencies toward reflectivity. Some people tend to make a quick, gambling guess at an answer to a problem. Others tend to make a slower, more calculated decision about the same problem. The former cognitive style is called “impulsive” style, and the latter one is called “reflective” style. These personality traits have an effect on second language learning.
Impulsive learners of second language tend to be quick to answer the questions provided by the teacher, but their answers are not so much accurate compared to the reflective learners. On the other hand, reflective learners tend to make fewer errors but they react slower than the impulsive learners. What is more, reflectives learn longer but more effectively. Impulsives, on the other hand, are better at conversation and listening tasks, whereas reflectives are better at reading and writing when time is unlimited. For language teachers, they need to figure out the reflectivity of their students and adjust their teaching to the traits. For example, they must not judge the errors of impulsive students too harshly, and they need to be more patient to reflective learners in their class. When student is too impulsive, teacher should try to delay their answers. Teacher should praise students for giving the answer and point out how to improve wrong answer.
19. Describe the concept of perceptual preferences and its role in foreign language development.
People have different preferences for the type of input. Research conducted by Reid has demonstrated that learners have four basic perceptual learning channels (or modalities):
1. Visual learning: reading, studying charts
2. Auditory learning: listening to lectures, audiotapes
3. Kinesthetic learning: experiential learning, that is, total physical involvement with a learning situation
4. Tactile learning: “hands-on” learning, such as building models or doing laboratory experiments
It is important to determine students learning styles and make students aware about different approaches to learning. The importance to determine learning styles of the students and that there should be an effort from the educator's side to accommodate those differences in the classroom. When the learning styles are determine it is suggested that instructor take into consideration differences among the students when designing the course material. Varity of the materials should be incorporated in the language classroom. Students are also advise to try to adjust to different learning circumstances in order to avoid any confrontations when exposed to learning styles that does not suite them.
(Nie wiem, czy to też się zalicza do tego pytania, ale na wszelki wypadek ten podział też Wam wypiszę)
By Willing - two continua - Concrete vs. Analytical / Communicative vs. Authority-orientated
Concrete learning style - learners in this category like to be able to see real-life applications for what they are learning, they dislike abstract learning without the context, perhaps learn best through practical tasks
Analytical learning style - those learners look for systematicity and are good at problem-solving tasks, they prefer logical-didactic presentation, dislike failure, are independent and object orientated
Communicative learning style - highly adaptable and flexible, prefer social learning and communicative approach, enjoy taking decisions, are fairly independent and responsive to facts that do not fit
Authority-orientated learning style - reliant on other people, need teacher directions and explanations, like a structured learning environment, intolerant of facts that do not fit, prefer a sequential progression, dislike discovery learning
20. Differences between metacognitive and cognitive learning strategies. Provide examples.
Metacognitive strategies - mental, organizational strategies - those strategies that are involved in planning, monitoring, and evaluating learning.
Metacognitive strategies involve:
Centering your learning:
Overviewing and linking with already know material
Paying attention
Delaying speech production to focus on listening
Arranging and planning your learning:
Finding out about language learning
Organizing
Setting goals and objectives
Identifying the purpose of a language task
Planning for a language task
Seeking practice opportunities
Evaluating your learning:
Self-monitoring
Self-evaluating
Cognitive strategies - involved in practical use of a language - those strategies are involved in the analysis, synthesis, or transformation of learning materials.
Examples of cognitive strategies:
Practicing:
Repeating
Formally practicing with sounds and writing systems
Recognizing and using formulas and patterns
Recombining
Practicing naturalistically
Receiving and sending messages:
Getting the idea quickly
Using resources for receiving and sending messages
Analyzing and reasoning:
Reasoning deductively
Analyzing expressions
Analyzing contrastively (across languages)
Translating
Transforming
Creating structure for input and output:
Taking notes
Summarizing
Highlighting
21. Differentiate between direct and indirect learning strategies . Provide examples.
-Direct strategies directly involve the target language and they require mental processing of the language. Examples: cognitive strategies, memory strategies and compensation strategies.
-Indirect strategies provide support for language learning through focusing, planning, evaluating, seeking opportunities, controlling anxiety, increasing cooperation and empathy. Examples: social strategies, metacognitive and affective strategies.
22. Provide examples of memory strategies in the categories of: creating mental linkages, applying images and sounds, reviewing well and employing action.
2) Memory strategies:
-CREATING MENTAL LINKAGES:
-> Grouping
-> associating/ elaborating
->placing new words into a context
- APPLYING IMAGES AND SOUNDS:
->using imagery
->semantic mapping
->using keywords
->representing sounds in memory
-REVIEWING WELL:
-> Structured reviewing
-EMPLOYING ACTION:
-> using physical response or sensation
->using mechanical techniques
23. Provide some examples of mnemonics for learning vocabulary.
1) ACRONYMS: for example; OPSASHCOM referring to the order of adjectives.
2) ACROSTICS: for example; a sentence like: Very soon a train should come. Every first letter of each word is a reference to the following V- value, S- size, A-age, T-temperature, S-shape, C-color, origin,material.
3) TAKING A PROBLEMATIC WORD: We pick a word which is problematic to us and we build a sentence which contains all the letters of the problematic word and also meaning of the word.
For example: NECESSARY- It is not necessary to look old.. Never Eat Chips Eat Slimming Salad And Remain Young.
24. Provide examples of affective strategies in the categories of : lowering your anxiety, encouraging yourself and taking your emotional temperature.
Affective strategies:
-LOWERING YOUR ANXIETY:
-> Using progressive relaxation, deep breathing or meditation
->using musing, laughter.
- ENCOURAGING YOURSELF:
-> making positive statements
->taking risks wisely
-> rewarding yourself
-TAKING YOUR EMOTIONAL TEMPERATURE:
-> listening to your body
-> using a checklist
-> writing a language learning diary
-> discussing your feelings with someone else
25. what compensation and social strategies do you know? Provide at least two specific examples of each.
Compensation is a direct
COMPENSATION STRATEGIES:
GUESSING INTELLIGENTLY
Using linguistic clues
Using other clues
OVERCOMING LIMITATIONS IN SPEAKING AND WRITING:
Switching to the mother tongue
Getting help
Using mime and gesture
Avoiding communication partially or totally
Selecting the topic
Adjusting or approximating the message
Coining words
Using a circumlocution or synonym
Learners use compensation strategies for comprehension of the target language when they have insufficient knowledge of the target language. These strategies make up for the deficiency in grammar and vocabulary. When learners do not know new words and expressions, they guess the meaning. A learner brings own life experience to interpret data by guessing.
SOCIAL STRATEGIES
ASKING QUESTIONS
Asking for correction
COOPERATING WITH OTHERS
Cooperating with peers
Cooperating with proficient users of the new language
EMPATHIZING WITH OTHERS
Developing a cultural understanding
Becoming aware of others' thoughts and feelings
Social strategies are very important in learning a language because language is used in communication and communication occurs between people. Three sets of strategies are included in this group: Asking Questions, Cooperating with others, and Empathizing with Others.
Among the three, asking questions is the most helpful and comes closest to understanding the
meaning. It also helps in conversation by generating response from the partner and shows interest
and involvement. Cooperation with others eliminates competition and in its place brings group.
26. Characteristics of a good learner with reference to learning strategies
Successful language learners pay attention to both form and meaning. Good language learners are also very active (they use strategies for taking charge of their own learning ), show awareness of the learning process and their own personal learning styles, and, above all, are flexible and appropriate in their use of learning strategies. They seem to be especially adept at using metacognitive strategies. Successful learners usually use more strategies than unsuccessful learners. Successful learners may also call on different strategies at different stages of their development.
27.Describe the concept of self-esteem and its role in foreign language development.
Self-esteem is a personal judgement of worthiness that is expressed in the attitudes that individuals hold towards themselves. In general it is what we think about ourselves,how much we value ourselves and it is seen in the way we express ourselves
There are three general levels of self-esteem:
Global - it is the most general type of self-esteem; it is created over time and is based on many situations throughout our lives
Situational/specific - this type is based on specific situations or certain areas of our lives , e.g. home, education, work, social interactions etc.
Task - this level of self-esteem is the most detailed as it refers to specific tasks among these specific life areas or situations, e.g. if we talk about education, it may refer only to foreign language or only to the specific aspect of learning a language, for instance oral activities.it refers to our self-esteem as far as specific tasks within foreign language are concerned, e.g. speaking, writing, reading. We may feel good at writing, and in this particular field our self-esteem is high.
According to the research, task level is the most important as far as foreign language development is concerned since it is the most concrete and detailed. Self-esteem is strongly connected with our self-confidence.
However, there is a problem with self-esteem as far as learning process is concerned. It is a typical chicken-egg problem. It is still not proved whether it is better to increase and develop self-esteem in order to improve language skills, or to increase and develop language skills in order to improve our self-esteem.
28. Anxiety and its role in FL development:
Anxiety-(the term is difficult to define) but we can say that anxiety is combined with self - esteem, inhibition(zachamowanie) and risk taking. A. is associated with felling of uneasiness , frustration, self-doubt, apprehension or worry.
Anxiety can be experienced at 2 levels (more psychologically)
Trait anxiety- more permanent predisposition to be anxious. This level of anxiety doesn't affect learning
State anxiety - is experienced in relation to some particular situation or event. There have been identified 3 components of state anxiety, which affect foreign language development:
Fear arising from learner's inability to express mature and adequate thought or ideas
Fear arising from learner's need to be socially accepted and to make a positive impression on peers .(nobody likes when people lough at him).
Fear of tests, exams etc. (fear of academic evaluation)
The teacher has to observe the students in order to determine from which type of anxiety student's fear stems from.
In language development anxiety can be distinguished between:
Debilitative- harmful anxiety which prevents students from developing their language
Facilitative- helpful anxiety. It motivates the students to get the job done. It is combined with competitiveness (nonetheless to strong competitiveness may hinder the process of learning- `other people are so good, no matter what will I do I will still be the worse') which motivates the ss to study harder.
Both too much and too little anxiety may hinder the process of second language development.