tains; on Earth the mass of an object determines the object’s
weight.

In the United States, length and width are typically de-

scribed in inches, feet, or yards; volumes in pints, quarts, or
gallons; and weights in ounces, pounds, or tons. These are
units of the U.S. system of measurement. Table 1 summarizes
the terms used in the U.S. system. For reference purposes,
this table also includes a definition of the “household units,”

Appendix

Weights and Measures

Accurate descriptions of physical objects would be impossi-
ble without a precise method of reporting the pertinent data.
Dimensions such as length and width are reported in stan-
dardized units of measurement, such as inches or centime-
ters. These values can be used to calculate the volume of an
object, a measurement of the amount of space the object fills.
Mass is another important physical property. The mass of an
object is determined by the amount of matter the object con-

TABLE 1

The U.S. System of Measurement

Physical

Relationship to

Relationship to

Property

Unit

Other U.S. Units

Household Units

Length

inch (in.)

1 in

0.083 ft

foot (ft)

1 ft

12 in.
0.33 yd

yard (yd)

1 yd

36 in.
3 ft

mile (mi)

1 mi

5280 ft
1760 yd

Volume

fluid dram (fl dr)

1 fl dr

0.125 fl oz

(also fluidram)

fluid ounce (fl oz)

1 fl oz

8 fl dr

6 teaspoons (tsp)

0.0625 pt

2 tablespoons (tbsp)

pint (pt)

1 pt

128 fl dr

32 tbsp

16 fl oz

2 cups (c)

0.5 qt

quart (qt)

1 qt

256 fl dr

4 c

32 fl oz
2 pt
0.25 gal

gallon (gal)

1 gal

128 fl oz
8 pt
4 qt

Mass

grain (gr)

1 gr

0.002 oz

dram (dr)

1 dr

27.3 gr
0.063 oz

ounce (oz)

1 oz.

437.5 gr
16 dr

pound (lb)

1 lb

7000 gr
256 dr
16 oz

ton (t)

1 t

2000 lb

popular in recipes. The U.S. system can be very difficult to
work with, because there is no logical relationship among the
various units. For example, there are 12 inches in a foot, 3 feet
in a yard, and 1760 yards in a mile. Without a clear pattern of
organization, the conversion of feet to inches or miles to feet
can be confusing and time-consuming. The relationships

among ounces, pints, quarts, and gallons are no more logical
than those among ounces, pounds, and tons.

In contrast, the metric system has a logical organization

based on powers of 10, as indicated in Table 2. For example,
a meter (m) is the basic unit for the measurement of size. For
measurements of larger objects, data can be reported in

APPENDIX

TABLE 2

The Metric System of Measurement

Physical

Relationship to

Conversion to

Property

Unit

Standard Metric Units

U.S. Units

Length

nanometer (nm)

1 nm

0.000000001 m (10

9

)

3.94 10

8

in.

25,400,000 nm

1 in.

micrometer (mm)

1 mm

0.000001 m (10

6

)

3.94 × 10

5

in.

25,400 mm

1 in.

millimeter (mm)

1 mm

0.001 m (10

3

)

0.0394 in.

25.4 mm

1 in.

centimeter (cm)

1 cm

0.01 m (10

2

)

0.394 in.

2.54 cm

1 in.

decimeter (dm)

1 dm

0.1 m (10

1

)

3.94 in.

0.254 dm

1 in.

meter (m)

standard unit of length

39.4 in.

0.0254 m

1 in.

3.28 ft

0.3048 m

1 ft

1.093 yd

0.914 m

1 yd

kilometer (km)

1 km

1000 m

3280 ft
1093 yd
0.62 mi

1.609 km

1 mi

Volume

microliter (mL)

1 mL

0.000001 L (10

6

)

1 cubic millimeter (mm

3

)

milliliter (mL)

1 mL

0.001 L (10

3

)

0.0338 fl oz

5 mL

1 tsp

1 cubic centimeter (cm

3

or cc)

15 mL

1 tbsp

30 mL

1 fl oz

centiliter (cL)

1 cL

0.01 L (10

2

)

0.338 fl oz

2.95 cL

1 fl oz

deciliter (dL)

1 dL

0.1 L (10

1

)

3.38 fl oz

0.295 dL

1 fl oz

liter (L)

standard unit of volume

33.8 fl oz

0.0295 L

1 fl oz

2.11 pt

0.473 L

1 pt

1.06 qt

0.946 L

1 qt

Mass

picogram (pg)

1 pg

0.000000000001 g (10

12

)

nanogram (ng)

1 ng

0 .000000001 g (10

9

)

0.000000015 gr

66,666,666 ng

1 gr

microgram (mg)

1 mg

0.000001 g (10

6

)

0.000015 gr

66,666 mg

1 gr

milligram (mg)

1 mg

0 .001 g (10

3

)

0.015 gr

66.7 mg

1 gr

centigram (cg)

1 cg

0.01 g (10

2

)

0.15 gr

6.67 cg

1 gr

decigram (dg)

1 dg

0.1 g (10

1

)

1.5 gr

0.667 cg

1 gr

gram (g)

standard unit of mass

0.035 oz

28.4 g

1 oz

0.0022 lb

454 g

1 lb

dekagram (dag)

1 dag

10 g

hectogram (hg)

1 hg

100 g

kilogram (kg)

1 kg

1000 g

2.2 lb

0.454 kg

1 lb

metric ton (MT)

1 MT

1000 kg

1.1 t
2205 lb

0.907 MT

1 t

Temperature

Celsius

Fahrenheit

Freezing point of pure water

0°

32°

Normal body temperature

36.8°

98.6°

Boiling point of pure water

100°

212°

Conversion

°C

→ °F: °F (1.8 × °C) 32

°F

→ °C: °C (°F 32) × 0.56

dekameters (deka, ten), hectometers (hekaton, hundred), or
kilometers (km; chilioi, thousand); for smaller objects, data
can be reported in decimeters (0.1 m; decem, ten),
centimeters (cm

0.01 m; centum, hundred), millimeters

(mm

0.001 m; mille, thousand), and so forth. In the metric

system, the same prefixes are used to report weights, based on
the gram (g), and volumes, based on the liter (L). This text
reports data in metric units, in most cases with U.S. system
equivalents. Use this opportunity to become familiar with the
metric system, because most technical sources report data
only in metric units; most of the world outside the United
States uses the metric system exclusively. Conversion factors
are included in Table 2.

The U.S. and metric systems also differ in their methods of

reporting temperatures. In the United States, temperatures
are usually reported in degrees Fahrenheit (°F), whereas sci-
entific literature and individuals in most other countries re-
port temperatures in degrees Celsius (°C). The relationship
between temperatures in degrees Fahrenheit and those in de-
grees Celsius is indicated in Table 2.

The following illustration spans the entire range of mea-

surements that we will consider in this book. Gross anatomy
traditionally deals with structural organization as seen with
the naked eye or with a simple hand lens. A microscope can
provide higher levels of magnification and can reveal finer de-
tails. Before the 1950s, most information was provided by

light microscopy. A photograph taken through a light micro-
scope is called a light micrograph (LM). Light microscopy can
magnify cellular structures up to about 1000 times and can
show details as fine as 0.25 mm. The symbol mm stands for
micrometer; mm

0.001 mm, or 0.00004 inches. With a

light microscope, we can identify cell types, such as muscle
fibers or neurons, and can see large structures within a cell.
Because individual cells are relatively transparent, thin sec-
tions cut through a cell are treated with dyes that stain spe-
cific structures to make them easier to see.

Although special staining techniques can show the general

distribution of proteins, lipids, carbohydrates, and nucleic
acids in the cell, many fine details of intracellular structure re-
mained a mystery until investigators began using electron mi-
croscopy. This technique uses a focused beam of electrons,
rather than a beam of light, to examine cell structure. In
transmission electron microscopy, electrons pass through an ul-
trathin section to strike a photographic plate. The result is a
transmission electron micrograph (TEM). Transmission
electron microscopy shows the fine structure of plasma mem-
branes and intracellular structures. In scanning electron mi-
croscopy, electrons bouncing off exposed surfaces create a
scanning electron micrograph (SEM). Although it cannot
achieve as much magnification as transmission microscopy,
scanning microscopy provides a three-dimensional perspec-
tive of cell structure.

Pr

ot

eins

Diameter

o

f

DNA

Ami

n

o

a

ci

ds

Atoms

Ribos

om

e

s

V

irus

es

Mi

toc

hon

d

rion

Bac

teria

Red

b

loo

d

cel

l

Lar

g

e

p

ro

to

zoa

n

Huma

n

o

o

cyte

Huma

n

h

e

a

rt

Huma

n

b

ody

Finge

rtip

(width

)

0.1nm

1nm

10nm

100nm

1

µm

10

µm

100

µm

1mm

10mm

100mm

1m

10m

Transmission electron microscope

Scanning electron microscope

Compound light microscope

Unaided human eye

APPENDIX

*Lanthanide series

1 H

Hydrogen

1.01

3 Li

Lithium

6.94

11 Na

Sodium

22.99

19 K

Potassium

39.10

37 Rb

Rubidium

85.47

55 Cs

Cesium

132.91

87 Fr

Francium

(223)

20 Ca

Calcium

40.08

38 Sr

Strontium

87.62

56 Ba

Barium

137.33

88 Ra

Radium

226.03

21 Sc

Scandium

44.96

39 Y

Yttrium

88.91

57 La

Lanthanum

138.91

89 Ac

Actinium

227.03

22 Ti

Titanium

47.88

40 Zr

Zirconium

91.22

72 Hf

Hafnium

178.49

104 Rf

Ruther-

fordium

(266)

23 V

Vanadium

50.94

41 Nb

Niobium

92.91

73 Ta

Tantalum

180.95

105 Db

Dubnium

(262)

106 Sg

Seaborgium

(266)

107 Bh

Bohrium

(264)

108 Hs

Hassium

(269)

109 Mt

Meitnerium

(268)

110 DS

Darmstadtium

(271)

111 Rg

Roentgenium

(272)

112

Uub

(277)

113

Uut

(284)

115

Uup

(288)

116

Uuh

(291)

114

Uuq

(285)

42 Mo

Molybdenum

95.94

74 W

Tungsten

183.85

25 Mn

Manganese

54.94

43 Tc

Technetium

(98)

75 Re

Rhenium

186.21

26 Fe

Iron

55.85

44 Ru

Ruthenium

101.07

76 Os

Osmium

190.2

27 Co

Cobalt

58.93

45 Rh

Rhodium

102.91

77 Ir

Iridium

192.22

28 Ni

Nickel

58.69

46 Pd

Palladium

106.42

78 Pt

Platinum

195.08

29 Cu

Copper

63.55

47 Ag

Silver

107.87

79 Au

Gold

196.97

30 Zn

Zinc

65.39

48 Cd

Cadmium

112.41

80 Hg

Mercury

200.59

31 Ga

Gallium

69.72

49 In

Indium

114.82

81 Tl

Thallium

204.38

32 Ge

Germanium

72.61

50 Sn

Tin

118.71

82 Pb

Lead

207.2

33 As

Arsenic

74.92

51 Sb

Antimony

121.76

83 Bi

Bismuth

208.98

34 Se

Selenium

78.96

52 Te

Tellurium

127.60

84 Po

Polonium

(209)

35 Br

Bromine

79.90

53 I

Iodine

126.90

85 At

Astatine

(210)

4 Be

Beryllium

9.01

12 Mg

Magnesium

24.31

5 B

Boron

10.81

6 C

Carbon

12.01

7 N

Nitrogen

14.01

8 O

Oxygen

16.00

9 F

Fluorine

19.00

13 Al

Aluminum

26.98

14 Si

Silicon

28.09

15 P

Phosphorus

30.97

16 S

Sulfur

32.07

17 Cl

Chlorine

35.45

58 Ce

Cerium

140.12

57

La

138.91

90 Th

Thorium

232.04

89

Ac

227

59 Pr

Praseo-

dymium

140.91

91 Pa

Protactinium

232.04

60 Nd

Neodymium

144.24

92 U

Uranium

238.03

61 Pm

Promethium

(145)

93 Np

Neptunium

237

62 Sm

Samarium

150.36

94 Pu

Plutonium

(244)

63 Eu

Europium

151.96

95 Am

Americium

(243)

64 Gd

Gadolinium

157.25

96 Cm

Curium

(247)

65 Tb

Terbium

158.93

97 Bk

Berkelium

(247)

66 Dy

Dysprosium

162.50

98 Cf

Californium

(251)

67 Ho

Holmium

164.93

99 Es

Einsteinium

(252)

68 Er

Erbium

167.26

100 Fm

Fermium

(257)

69 Tm

Thulium

168.93

101 Md

Mendelevium

(258)

70 Yb

Ytterbium

173.05

102 No

Nobelium

(259)

71 Lu

Lutetium

174.97

103 Lr

Lawrencium

(262)

24 Cr

Chromium

52.00

†

*

1 H

Hydrogen

1.01

Atomic number

Atomic weight

Chemical symbol

Element name

†Actinide series

36 Kr

Krypton

83.80

54 Xe

Xenon

131.29

86 Rn

Radon

(222)

118

Uuo

(294)

10 Ne

Neon

20.18

2 He

Helium

4.00

18 Ar

Argon

39.95

Periodic T

able

The periodic table presents the known elements in order of their atomic
weights. Each horizontal row represents a single electron shell. The
number of elements in that row is determined by the maximum number
of electrons that can be stored at that energy level. The element at the
left end of each row contains a single electron in its outermost electron
shell; the element at the right end of the row has a filled outer electron
shell. Organizing the elements in this fashion highlights similarities that
reflect the composition of the outer electron shell. These similarities are
evident when you examine the vertical columns. All the gases of the
right-most column—helium, neon, argon, krypton, xenon, and radon—
have full electron shells; each is a gas at normal atmospheric tempera-

ture and pressure, and none reacts readily with other elements. These el-
ements, highlighted in blue, are known as the noble, or inert, gases. In
contrast, the elements of the left-most column below hydrogen—
lithium, sodium, potassium, rubidium, cesium, and francium—are sil-
very, soft metals that are so highly reactive that pure forms cannot be
found in nature. The fourth and fifth electron levels can hold up to 18
electrons. Table inserts are used for the so-called lanthanide and actinide
series to save space, as higher levels can store up to 32 electrons. Ele-
ments of particular importance to our discussion of human anatomy and
physiology are highlighted in pink.

Normal Physiological Values

Tables 3 and 4 present normal averages or ranges for the
chemical composition of body fluids. These values are ap-
proximations rather than absolute values, because test results
vary from laboratory to laboratory owing to differences in
procedures, equipment, normal solutions, and so forth.
Blanks in the tabular data appear where data are not available;
sources used in the preparation of these tables follow. The fol-
lowing locations in the text contain additional information
about body fluid analysis:

Table 19–3 (p. 670) presents data on the cellular compo-
sition of whole blood.

Table 26–2 (p. 976) compares the average compositions
of urine and plasma.

Tables 26–5 (p. 993) and 26–6 (p. 996) give the general
characteristics of normal urine.

Sources

Braunwauld, Eugene, Kurt J. Isselbacher, Dennis L. Kasper,

Jean D. Wilson, Joseph B. Martin, and Anthony S. Fauci,
eds. 1998. Harrison’s Principles of Internal Medicine, 14th
ed. New York: McGraw-Hill.

Ganong, William F. 2005. Review of Medical Physiology, 23rd

ed. New York: McGraw-Hill.

Lentner, Cornelius, ed. 1981. Geigy Scientific Tables, 8th ed.

Basel, Switzerland: Ciba–Geigy Limited.

Malarkey, Louise and Mary Ellen McMorrow. 2005. Saunders

Nursing Guide to Laboratory and Diagnostic Tests. St.
Louis: Elsevier.

Wintrobe, Maxwell, G. Richard Lee, Dane R. Boggs, Thomas

C. Bitnell, John Foerster, John W. Athens, and John N.
Lukens. 1981. Clinical Hematology, Philadelphia: Lea and
Febiger.

TABLE 3

The Composition of Minor Body Fluids

Normal Averages or Ranges

Test

Perilymph

Endolymph

Synovial Fluid

Sweat

Saliva

Semen

pH

7.4

4–6.8

6.4*

7.19

Specific gravity

1.008–1.015

1.001–1.008

1.007

1.028

Electrolytes

(mEq/L)

Potassium

5.5–6.3

140–160

4.0

4.3–14.2

21

31.3

Sodium

143–150

12–16

136.1

0–104

14*

117

Calcium

1.3–1.6

0.05

2.3–4.7

0.2–6

3

12.4

Magnesium

1.7

0.02

0.03–4

0.6

11.5

Bicarbonate

17.8–18.6

20.4–21.4

19.3–30.6

6*

24

Chloride

121.5

107.1

107.1

34.3

17

42.8

Proteins

(total) (mg/dL)

200

150

1.72 g/dL

7.7

386

†

4.5 g/dL

Metabolites

(mg/dL)

Amino acids

47.6

40

1.26 g/dL

Glucose

104

70–110

3.0

11

224 (fructose)

Urea

26–122

20

72

Lipids (total)

12

20.9

‡

25–500

§

188

*Increases under salivary stimulation.

†

Primarily alpha-amylase, with some lysozymes.

‡

Not present in eccrine secretions.

§

Cholesterol.

APPENDIX

TABLE 4

The Chemistry of Blood, Cerebrospinal Fluid, and Urine

Normal Averages or Ranges

Test

Blood*

CSF

Urine

pH

S: 7.35–7.45

7.31–7.34

4.5–8.0

Osmolarity (mOsm/L)

S: 280–295

292–297

855–1335

Electrolytes

(mEq/L unless noted)

(urinary loss per 24-hour period

†

)

Bicarbonate

P: 21–28

20–24

Calcium

S: 4.5–5.5

2.1–3.0

6.5–16.5 mEq

Chloride

S: 97–107

113–122

120–240 mEq

Iron

S: 50–150 µg/L

23–52 µg/L

40–150 µg

Magnesium

S: 1.4–2.1

2–2.5

4.9–16.5 mEq

Phosphorus

S: 1.8–2.9

1.2–2.0

0.8–2 g

Potassium

P: 3.5–5.5

2.7–3.9

35–80 mEq

Sodium

P: 136–145

137–145

120–220 mEq

Sulfate

S: 0.2–1.3

1.07–1.3 g

Metabolites

(mg/dL unless noted)

(urinary loss per 24-hour period

‡

)

Amino acids

P/S: 2.3–5.0

10.0–14.7

41–133 mg

Ammonia

P: 20–150 µg/dL

25–80 µg/dL

340–1200 mg

Bilirubin

S: 0.5–1.0

< 0.2 mg/dL

0.02–1.9 mg

Creatinine

P/S: 0.6–1.2

0.5–1.9

1.01–2.5

Glucose

P/S: 70–110

40–70

0

Ketone bodies

S: 0.3–2.0

1.3–1.6

10–100 mg

Lactic acid

WB: 5–20

§

10–20

100–600 mg

Lipids (total)

S: 400–1000

0.8–1.7

0–31.8 mg

Cholesterol (total)

S: 150–300

0.2–0.8

1.2–3.8 mg

Triglycerides

S: 40–150

0–0.9

Urea

P/S: 23–43

12.0

12.6–28.6

Uric acid

S: 2.0–7.0

0.2–1.5

80–976 mg

Proteins

(g/dL)

(mg/dL)

(urinary loss per 24-hour period

‡

)

Total

S: 6.0–7.8

2.0–4.5

47–76.2 mg

Albumin

S: 3.2–4.5

10.6–32.4

10–100 mg

Globulins (total)

S: 2.3–3.5

2.8–15.5

7.3 mg (average)

Immunoglobulins

S: 1.0–2.2

1.1–1.7

3.1 mg (average)

Fibrinogen

P: 0.2–0.4

0.65 (average)

*S

serum, P plasma, WB whole blood.

†

Because urinary output averages just over 1 liter per day, these electrolyte values are comparable to mEq/L.

‡

Because urinary metabolite and protein data approximate mg/L or g/L, these data must be divided by 10 for comparison with CSF or blood concentrations.

§

Venous blood sample.