THE USE OF THERAVA¯DA BUDDHIST
PRACTICES AND PERSPECTIVES IN
MINDFULNESS-BASED COGNITIVE
THERAPY

Richard Gilpin

This study explores and assesses the nature and practice of Mindfulness-Based Cognitive

Therapy (MBCT) from the perspective of Therava¯da Buddhism. It is particularly

concerned with how both models of training understand and apply ‘mindfulness’. The

approach here is, firstly, to examine how the Therava¯da understands and employs

mindfulness and, secondly, to explore, and more accurately contextualize, the work of

MBCT. The evaluation of MBCT in terms of the Therava¯da suggests the former has both a

strong affinity with, as well as some significant distinctions from, its dominant

Therava¯din influences.

Introduction

This paper assesses, from a Therava¯da Buddhist perspective, the nature and

practice of mindfulness-based cognitive therapy (MBCT), a well-established
mindfulness-based health intervention with roots in the pioneering work of Jon
Kabat-Zinn’s Mindfulness-Based Stress Reduction programme. Now accredited by
the UK National Institute of Clinical Excellence as an effective treatment for
depressive relapse (National Institute of Clinical Excellence 2004, 35), MBCT is
available through the National Health Service in this country, and is a fitting
example of western psychology’s growing interest in ‘embodied experience’ as a
means to therapeutic change. This paper is particularly concerned with how MBCT
understands and applies ‘mindfulness’, a key concept in Buddhist thought, which
has generated significant interest in clinical psychology over the past 25 years. It
also seeks to uncover and evaluate the Buddhist influences on MBCT, which have
gone unexplored until now. This will, hopefully, prove to be a timely contribution
to the rapidly emerging correspondence between mindfulness-based psy-
chotherapies and Buddhist psychology. In terms of academic literature, it is the
western clinicians who have been considerably more prolific thus far.
The Therava¯da Buddhist perspectives outlined here may serve subsequent studies

Contemporary Buddhism, Vol. 9, No. 2, November 2008

ISSN 1463-9947 print/1476-7953 online/08/020227-251

q

2008 Taylor & Francis

DOI: 10.1080/14639940802556560

seeking to understand mindfulness within a ‘wider picture’, and not as some
artificial construct or decontextualised technique. The first section of this paper
explores how the Therava¯da understands and employs mindfulness. The second
section examines its treatment by mindfulness-based psychotherapies generally,
and MBCT in particular, and suggests some common ground as well as points of
departure. The final section evaluates how MBCT understands and uses
mindfulness practice compared with the Therava¯da. Given that we have here
two models of training, spiritual and secular, separated in origin from each other
by over two millennia, but which both place mindfulness at the heart of their
practice, this should prove an interesting meeting.

Overview of the nature, meaning, function, and practice
of mindfulness in Therava¯da Buddhism

While mindfulness (sati) itself is frequently emphasised in Therava¯da

Buddhist philosophy and practice, the four primary Nika¯yas of the Pali Canon’s
Sutta-pi

_

taka offer little in the way of its definition, preferring to describe the

practice of the ‘presencings of mindfulness’ (satipa

_

t

_

tha¯nas) that allows sati its

fullest expression (Gethin 2001, 36). A more useful means to appreciating sati’s
richness of meaning is with reference to its various categorisations within the 37
dhammas that contribute to awakening (bodhi-pakkhiya¯-dhamma¯), particularly
the satipa

_

t

_

tha¯nas, and its relationship to other dhammas; for example, clear

comprehension (sampajan˜n

˜a), concentration (sama¯dhi), and wisdom ( pan˜n˜a¯).

However, what should be clarified from the outset is Therava¯da Buddhism’s
understanding of sati as occurring only in sobhana-citta, an Abhidhamma term
that includes kammically wholesome (kusala) consciousness and its wholesome
result (kusala-vipa¯ka).

Kusala actions are ‘blameless’ actions that are ‘“wise” or “skilful” in

producing an uplifting mental state and spiritual progress in the doer” (Harvey
2000, 42). Sati is understood by the Abhidhamma to only be fully effective when
working dynamically with other kusala mental qualities. Nonetheless, it plays an
important role in the development of kusala actions, in that it engenders a quality
of clear observation that further allows one to see what is kusala and what is not
(Milindapan˜ha, 37 – 38). Developed to its optimum measure, it leads to tranquillity
( passaddhi), a calm and contented state that is particularly useful in
counteracting ‘restlessness and worry’, an unwholesome (akusala) state known
as the fourth of the five main ‘hindrances’ (nı¯vara

_

nas)

1

to meditative

development. Therefore, without sati’s dual impact of clearly observing but
simultaneously calming the meditative process, unskilful attention and rashness
may hinder the meditator. It is such an understanding of sati’s impact that sets
the tone for the Therava¯da’s treatment of mindfulness as an intrinsically positive
mental quality.

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RICHARD GILPIN

The meaning of sati

In its most basic sense, sati, a noun related to the verb sarati (‘remember’),

can be understood in two related ways: (i) as an aspect of memory

2

—that is, of

‘calling to mind’ (anussati) and ‘remembrance’ ( pa

_

tissati)—where such recollective

activity facilitates greater awareness and sense of purpose for one treading the
Ennobling Eightfold Path; and (ii) as awareness of the present moment, such that
sati being present (upa

_

t

_

thitasati) implies a ‘presence of mind’ that allows one to be

awake to the present moment (Ana¯layo 2003, 48). Such ‘wakefulness’ is in turn
understood to support the recollective function of (i). In this way, sati is an alert yet
receptive awareness, which brings a quality of breadth to experience, and is thus
‘an awareness of things in relation to things, and hence an awareness of their
relative value’ (Gethin 2001, 39). Therefore, not only does sati have the ability to
notice what is occurring, it also brings a wider vision of objects in their relationship
to other objects and their accompanying mental factors.

The ethical dimension of sati

Sati’s protective characteristic, noted above, alludes to a crucial role

envisaged for mindfulness in Buddhism: its cultivation for both moral self-
protection and the protection of others. The Buddha makes this point explicitly to
his monks:

‘I will protect myself,’ bhikkhus: thus should the establishments of mindfulness

[satipa

_

t

_

tha¯nas] be practised. ‘I will protect others,’ bhikkhus: thus should the

establishments of mindfulness be practised. Protecting oneself, bhikkhus, one

protects others; protecting others, one protects oneself. (S.V.169; translated by

Bodhi 2000, 1648)

Thus, the Buddhist path consists of both moral and mental development
consisting, firstly, of ‘guarding’ oneself in order to be of service to others and,
secondly, of ‘guarding’ others by the practices of patience, harmlessness, loving-
kindness and sympathy (Samyutta Nika¯ya V. 169). In this way, by being aware of
one’s motives, thoughts, words and deeds, and their impact of oneself and others,
one becomes clearer about what needs to be done, and what should be left
undone; that is, one begins to make clear ethical choices. Sati, therefore, is
understood to play an active role in strengthening one’s ‘moral brakes’, checking
unwholesome habits and tendencies, and allowing greater spontaneity and scope
for the wholesome.

Conducting one’s life in a resolutely mindful fashion is called appama¯da, or

heedfulness, regularly defined as non-neglect or non-absence of sati. It implies
constant care and circumspection, continual attention to one’s duties, and
denotes ‘responsibility” in Buddhist terms (Payutto 1990, 4). From this, it is clear
that sati, established as appama¯da, has a social as well as an individual value; that
is, others necessarily benefit from one’s own practice of mindfulness.

THERAVA¯DA BUDDHISM AND MINDFULNESS-BASED COGNITIVE THERAPY

229

The satipa

_

t

_

tha¯nas

The ‘presencings of mindfulness’, as outlined in both the Satipa

_

t

_

tha¯na Sutta

(Majjhima Nika¯ya, 10) and the Maha¯satipa

_

t

_

tha¯na Sutta (Dı¯gha Nika¯ya, 22), provide

one of the clearest means to understanding the practice of mindfulness in
Therava¯da Buddhism, which holds both suttas in high esteem. The successful
practice of satipa

_

t

_

tha¯na distinguishes sati as a mental factor from its perfected

establishment as the path-factor Right Mindfulness (samma¯ sati). For this to occur,
sati must be combined with diligence (a¯tappa) and clear comprehension
(sampajan˜n

˜a), and supported by a state of mind free from desires and discontent

and directed towards the four fields of reference; that is, the body, and so forth.
(Ana¯layo 2003, 52). Similarly to sati’s dependence on other dhammas, Right
Mindfulness must work with Right Effort to bring about Right Concentration in
order to bring the other path-factors to fruition (the role of concentration in
satipa

_

t

_

tha¯na practice is discussed below).

Despite this, the Therava¯din treatment of meditative training regularly

elevates sati to the most important strand of the three sama¯dhi factors of the
Eightfold Path. This is due to mindfulness, ‘perfected’ or otherwise, having
assumed a somewhat special role in the Nika¯yas, partly because it plays an
important role in the acquisition of both calm (samatha) and insight (vipassana¯)
(discussed below), and partly because the satipa

_

t

_

tha¯nas are noted for their

practical application, versatility, and ‘distillation’ of the Buddhist path of
meditative training from its basics to bodhi (Gethin 2001, 66).

Satipa

_

t

_

tha¯na practice is a process based around focusing, concentration,

observation and contemplation of its four fields of reference, where sati is that
which ‘holds’ the chosen object sufficiently for its examination and sampajan˜n˜a
that which realises its nature and purpose (Payutto 1990, 29). As a sequence of
contemplations, they are presented as a gradual and progressive movement from
the relatively gross (e.g. bodily postures; anatomy) to the relatively subtle (e.g.
sense-spheres; bojjha _ngas), although it should be stressed that there is no ‘correct’
sequence; what is important is that ‘a flexible and comprehensive development of
satipa

_

t

_

tha¯na should encompass all aspects of experience, in whatever sequence

they occur’ (Ana¯layo 2003, 21).

Broadly speaking, satipa

_

t

_

tha¯na practice can be broken down into the

following stages (as repeated in the ‘refrain’ of both Majjhima Nika¯ya, 10 and
Dı¯gha Nika¯ya, 22):

(i)

Focusing on phenomena in and of themselves, in the present moment, as they

appear in oneself (ajjhatta), in others (bahiddha¯), and in both (ajjhatta-

bahiddha¯).

3

(ii)

Focusing on phenomena viewed as arising (samudaya-dhamma¯), as passing

away (vaya-dhamma¯), or as both (samudaya-vaya-dhamma¯).

(iii)

A merging of stages (i) and (ii) into ‘one perfect and undivided “vision of things

as they really are”’ (Nyanaponika 1998, 25).

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RICHARD GILPIN

The necessity of sama¯dhi, samatha, and vipassana¯

Sati is always utilised in conjunction with a variety of other mental factors for

successful satipa

_

t

_

tha¯na practice. Of critical importance in this regard is the role of

concentration (sama¯dhi), a minimal degree of which (as ekeggata¯, or ‘one-
pointedness’) is considered by the Abhidhamma to be indispensable in every state
of consciousness. In its perfected form, Right Concentration (samma¯ sama¯dhi)—
equivalent to attaining one of the four absorptions ( jha¯nas)—sama¯dhi becomes a
prerequisite for bodhi and works cooperatively with the satipa

_

t

_

tha¯nas to bring this

about. This is suggested by part of the Satipa

_

t

_

tha¯na Sutta’s ‘definition’ of effective

and complete practice as ‘having put away covetousness and grief for the world’
(Majjhima Nika¯ya, I.56, translated by N

˜ a¯

_

namoli & Bodhi 1995, 145), which is

synonymous with having sufficiently stilled the mind by abandoning (at least
temporarily) the five ‘hindrances’ (Papan˜casu¯danı¯, I.244). Such a state is a
characteristic of calm meditation (samatha), and indeed one of its primary
objectives.

4

The implication of the sutta, therefore, is that successful satipa

_

t

_

tha¯na

practice requires a certain degree of sama¯dhi and samatha, which may themselves
have been developed in the initial stages of meditation, especially the body
contemplations (Gethin 2001, 53). This accords with a basic Buddhist premise of
the necessity of both samatha (closely allied to sama¯dhi) and vipassana¯ (closely
allied to pan˜n

˜a¯) for bodhi to take place. Additionally, the need for their balanced

mutual development is often emphasised.

Trends in contemporary Therava¯din mindfulness practice

Historically, the Therava¯da shows a great fluidity in the way it sees samatha

and vipassana¯ as working together to achieve realisation. This is evidenced in, for
example, the dynamic and ongoing scholastic debate over the exact role, auxiliary
or otherwise, which jha¯nas play in the development of vipassana¯, and of the
related possibilities for ‘pre-jha¯nic liberation’. Modern methods of practice,
however, have tended to be decidedly vipassana¯ orientated and often ‘bypass’
jha¯nic practice (for example, King 1992, 123). It has been chiefly on these terms
that the tradition has been adopted in the West, as characterised by the rapid
growth of the lay-centred Burmese vipassana¯-ya¯na

5

approaches of Mahasi

Sayadaw and U Ba Khin. Such approaches are distinct from the much less
vipassana¯-orientated Thai and Sri Lankan forest traditions and, in the case of the
Mahasi method, even emphasises the ‘dry insight’ (sukkha-vipassana¯) approach,
which completely dispenses with the formal development of samatha.

6

Within this climate of vipassana¯-orientated practice, there has been an

equally notable stress on practice emphasising the first satipa

_

t

_

tha¯na (ka¯ya¯nu-

passana¯), sometimes in conjunction with the second (vedana¯nupassana¯), and
particularly on the practice of ‘mindfulness of breathing in and out’ (a¯na¯pa¯nasati).
This is not surprising given the high praise the discourses and commentaries
accord a¯na¯pa¯nasati, and the fact that any one satipa

_

t

_

tha¯na is understood to have

THERAVA¯DA BUDDHISM AND MINDFULNESS-BASED COGNITIVE THERAPY

231

the capacity to lead to bodhi.

7

Indeed, of the four, it is ka¯ya¯nupassana¯ that has

been attributed with certain additional ‘benefits’; namely, the ability it can foster in
the meditator to overcome sensual infatuation and develop sama¯dhi (Ana¯layo
2003, 124).

In summary then, mindfulness practice, as adopted in the West from

Theravadin sources, is often—although by no means always—characterised by an
emphasis on aspects of mindfulness of body, with a similar tendency towards
more vipassana¯-orientated practice.

Overview of western psychology’s treatment of mindfulness, and
the origins and practice of mindfulness-based cognitive therapy

In recent years, there has been a notable expansion of interest in the clinical

use of mindfulness practices in the West. While the psychotherapeutic tradition is
no stranger to the influence of Buddhist psychology—thinkers such as Jung,
Fromm, and Epstein come to mind—it is specifically within the scientifically
validated, mindfulness-based interventions established over the past 25 years that
MBCT finds its genesis. Here, it is the concept of ‘mindfulness’, a much debated
theoretical construct developed as the practical basis for several distinct therapies,
which has been ‘isolated’ from its Buddhist roots and utilised as a treatment for
various mental and physical health problems.

Conceptualisations of mindfulness in clinical psychology

Even the most cursory study of recent literature from the field of clinical

psychology reveals a dogged pursuit by researchers for an adequate operational
definition of ‘mindfulness’.

8

The word itself is used variously to describe a

theoretical construct (mindfulness), a practice of cultivating mindfulness
(e.g. meditation), or a psychological process (being mindful) (Germer 2005, 6).
There exists a broad agreement that mindfulness involves a way of attending to,
or being aware of, the present moment. In their widely referenced study, Bishop
et al. summarise the western conceptualisation of mindfulness as ‘a kind of
nonelaborative, nonjudgmental, present-centred awareness in which each
thought, feeling, or sensation that arises in the attentional field is acknowledged
and accepted as it is’ (2004, 4). Similarly, in her review, Baer defines it as a
‘nonjudgmental observation of . . . stimuli as they arise’ (2003, 125). Both
definitions take their cue from Kabat-Zinn’s much cited description of mindfulness
as the awareness that emerges through ‘paying attention in a particular way: on
purpose, in the present moment, and nonjudgmentally’ (1994, 4). As can be seen
here, definitions of mindfulness tend to incorporate an element of ‘non-judge-
ment’ when employed in a therapeutic context, as it is this quality that facilitates
the open, accepting attitude that is one of the hallmarks of the successful
therapeutic environment (Germer 2005, 6 – 7).

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RICHARD GILPIN

Presently, there exists a range of perspectives; from Kabat-Zinn’s, which

describes mindfulness as ‘a way of being’ (for example, Kabat-Zinn et al. 2002, 287)
and underlines the qualities of heart that support its practice (for example, Kabat-
Zinn 2003a, 145), to Bishop et al.’s, which takes a more ‘cognitivist’ stance,
preferring to focus on its mental mechanisms independently of other contextual
events (e.g. situational and historical) (Hayes and Shenk 2004). What all
perspectives share, however, is a strong emphasis on the present-moment activity
of mindfulness, and little or no regard for the recollective aspect afforded it by the
early Buddhist conception.

The rationale for mindfulness in clinical psychology

Mindfulness has further been conceptualised as ‘a clinical approach to foster

an alternative method for responding to one’s stress and emotional distress’
(Bishop et al. 2004). The rationale for this approach is as follows: by intentionally
opening to one’s experience, increasing awareness of thoughts and feelings, and
cultivating a more accepting, ‘decentred’ relationship to this experience, the client
is able to free himself/herself from distressing symptoms. In this way, mindfulness
interventions focus on altering the impact of, and response to, thoughts, feelings,
and so forth, and are therefore regarded as particularly effective for conditions
where intolerance of negative affect and subsequent behavioural avoidance play a
major role (Bishop et al. 2004). Additionally, the role of mindfulness in disengaging
from unhealthy behaviour patterns and helping to foster more adaptive strategies
is thought to be significant in both developing effective coping strategies (e.g. for
high levels of stress) (Kabat-Zinn et al. 1998, 769) and in ‘well-being enhancement’
(Brown and Ryan 2003, 823). Examples of conditions where mindfulness
interventions have been used include chronic pain, stress, anxiety, depression,
borderline personality disorders, panic attacks, and eating disorders (Baer 2003).

Mindfulness in clinical practice: a context for MBCT

The influence of mindfulness in the therapeutic field is wide ranging and can

be divided into two broad areas: ‘mindfulness-informed’ and ‘mindfulness-based’
psychotherapies (Germer 2005, 19). While mindfulness-informed psychotherapy
borrows ideas from both Buddhist and western psychology, therapists only refer
to some kind of mindfulness-orientated framework for themselves, and do not
explicitly teach clients such practices (Germer 2005, 19). Mindfulness-based
psychotherapy, on the other hand, involves teaching clients specific mindfulness
skills (Germer 2005, 19). This second branch can, in turn, be divided into:
(i) interventions incorporating mindfulness training (e.g. dialectical behaviour
therapy), where mindfulness is used alongside other interventions; and
(ii) mindfulness-based interventions, where the central component of the
intervention is instruction in, and practice of, mindfulness (Baer 2003). It is this
latter category that is occupied by mindfulness-based stress reduction (MBSR) and

THERAVA¯DA BUDDHISM AND MINDFULNESS-BASED COGNITIVE THERAPY

233

MBCT. These interventions appear to be characteristically distinct from others in
two ways. Firstly, they rely heavily on formal meditation in a way that other
interventions incorporating mindfulness do not. Secondly, they are unique in
asserting the critical importance of a therapist’s personal meditation practice.

Mindfulness-based stress reduction

MBSR is a group treatment programme originally developed for the

management of chronic pain and stress-related disorders. Given its pioneering
work, it remains the most frequently cited method of mindfulness training in
clinical literature (Baer 2003, 126). It is usually conducted as an eight-week course
for up to 30 people, who meet weekly for two to two-and-a-half hours for
instruction in mindfulness training (plus discussion on various life skills, e.g. coping
strategies), and who are encouraged to practise these skills outside group
meetings (initially with the help of audio recordings) for at least 45 minutes per
day, six days per week. The practices themselves fall into two main categories:

(i)

Formal practice: this comprises three distinct exercises: (a) the ‘body scan’, a

gradual movement of attention/awareness through the body from the feet up to

the head, carried out while lying down; (b) ‘sitting meditation’, directing

attention/awareness to the sensations of breathing while sitting; and (c) ‘mindful

movement’, various slow, gentle stretches and postures designed to develop

mindfulness when moving.

(ii)

Informal practice: this involves mindfully carrying out various everyday activities

(e.g. walking, standing, and eating), the aim being to cultivate a continuity of

awareness in all activities in daily life (Kabat-Zinn 2003a, 147). It is this which is

described as the ‘heart of the practice’ in MBSR (Kabat-Zinn 2000, 240), but

which requires the continuing support of regular formal practice if it is to retain

its ability to stabilise the mind (Kabat-Zinn 1990, 57).

While each of the three formal exercises offer a different focus, or series of

focal points, Kabat-Zinn suggests that mindfulness of breathing is (i) ‘an integral
part’ of all three formal practices (1993, 264), and (ii) adaptable to becoming an
informal practice, where one is mindful of the breath from time-to-time during the
day (1990, 57). Thus, it is regarded as ‘a very powerful and effective anchor for all
other aspects of meditative awareness’ (1990, 71). It is this method that forms the
backbone of the training programme. Having said this, over the course of the
eight weeks, the field of attention is often expanded in the sitting meditation to
focus on other objects (e.g. the body as a whole, sounds, thoughts, and feelings),
and culminates in the (optional) practice of ‘choiceless awareness’ where no
particular focus is sought, merely the awareness of whatever arises (Kabat-Zinn
1990, 71). Although they are not terms he uses, Kabat-Zinn’s approach is clearly
influenced by vipassana¯-ya¯na and sukkha-vipassana¯ approaches. Certainly, he
acknowledges the need for a preliminary degree of sama¯dhi (for example, Kabat-
Zinn 1994, 72; see also, for example, Kabat-Zinn 1993, 262), although to what

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RICHARD GILPIN

extent is unclear. Subsequent development of samatha is not addressed and,
therefore, seems not to be an important consideration of the training.

While MBSR attaches great importance to learning and practising the core

exercises, it clearly does not equate mindfulness with the techniques themselves.
Rather, Kabat-Zinn considers these to be ‘the menu . . . not the meal; the map
rather than the territory’ (2003a, 147). He defines ‘practice’ in the much wider
sense as ‘a way of being, a way of seeing, which is embodied, inhabited, grown
into through the implementations of the methods and techniques that comprise
the discipline’ (Kabat-Zinn 2003a, 148). The hope and intention is that such a ‘way
of being’ is adopted and developed by participants beyond the duration of the
course, but without any particular outcomes being sought, so that it becomes a
practice undertaken as an end in itself:

Realizations, insights, and even profound experiences of stillness and joy do

come. But it would be incorrect to say the goal of practice is to make these

experiences happen. The spirit of mindfulness is to practice for its own sake

(Kabat-Zinn 1993, 267)

Herein lies what Kabat-Zinn refers to as a key difference between

mindfulness training and other health interventions: goals (e.g. stress or anxiety
reduction) are best achieved by abandoning pursuit of these very goals, so that
participants cultivate the ability ‘simply to be where they are, with awareness’
(Kabat-Zinn et al. 1998, 769). In this way, ‘non-attachment to outcome’ is regarded
as an important hallmark of the training (Kabat-Zinn 2003a, 148). However, the
‘paradox’ of the training’s goalless-ness is such that participants frequently do
achieve targeted goals.

Mindfulness-based cognitive therapy

MBCT, as developed in the 1990s by Segal, Williams and Teasdale, is

designed to help prevent relapse in depression (Segal, Williams, and Teasdale
2002; Teasdale, Segal, and Williams 1995). Like MBSR, however, it is also
considered beneficial for other conditions. MBCT is based on the idea that people
who have experienced major depression are (i) vulnerable to recurrences
whenever mild dysphoric states are encountered, because (ii) these states may
precipitate ‘ruminative thinking’, characterised by the focusing on the contents of
negative thoughts, memories, beliefs, and so forth, and associative self-criticism
and judgement. To counteract this, mindfulness practice is employed to establish
a type of ‘alternative information processing configuration’ (also known as a
‘cognitive mode’) that is incompatible with such rumination (Teasdale 1999). Such
a cognitive mode is characterised by ‘metacognitive insight’, which is the ability to
experience thoughts as events in the mind, rather than to become ‘involved in’
their content (Teasdale 1999). Thus, MBCT participants are taught to observe their
thoughts and feelings non-judgementally, and to relate to them from a more
‘decentred’ perspective (i.e. ‘distancing’ oneself from one’s thoughts, in order

THERAVA¯DA BUDDHISM AND MINDFULNESS-BASED COGNITIVE THERAPY

235

to see them in a less ‘self-identified’ way) rather than as aspects of self or accurate
reflections of reality (Segal, Williams, and Teasdale 2002). Similarly to MBSR, this
approach is based on the notion that by developing a different relationship to (in
this case, depression-related) thoughts and feelings, participants become skilled in
preventing ruminative escalation at times of potential relapse (Teasdale 1999).

MBCT in practice is an eight-week group intervention based on Kabat-Zinn’s

MBSR programme, which utilises all the main exercises outlined in the previous
section. Equally, it takes its basic definitions and descriptions of mindfulness
practice from Kabat-Zinn’s work. Its format and core practices are effectively
identical to MBSR’s, although the eight-week course does differ from MBSR’s
generic training in certain ways. Firstly, it incorporates some techniques and
exercises from cognitive behavioural therapy (e.g. instruction on how to deal with
the threat of depressive relapse). Secondly, it provides information particular to
depression (e.g. its characteristics and warning signs). Thirdly, and most
significantly, it introduces a fourth formal practice, called the ‘three-minute
breathing space’. This is a way of ‘generalising’ formal practice in daily life
(Segal, Williams, and Teasdale 2002, 173), initially at regular, preset times during
each day, but which can be extended to times when unpleasant feelings are
noticed. The exercise has three basic steps: (i) disengaging from one’s activity and
acknowledging one’s experience at the moment; (ii) gathering one’s mind by
focusing one’s attention on the breath; and (iii) expanding this attention to
include a sense of the breath and the body as a whole (Segal, Williams, and
Teasdale 2002, 174). Such an exercise offers a handy distillation of MBCT’s core
propositions: stepping out of ‘automatic pilot’ to assume a more ‘decentred’
perspective facilitates a more metacognitive insight mode (characterised by
‘being’, rather than ‘doing’), where thoughts and so on can be seen as just
thoughts, and not ‘facts’ (Segal, Williams, and Teasdale 2002, 262).

Given its close links and resemblance to MBSR, it is not surprising that MBCT

literature exhibits a strong tendency to step beyond its remit as a therapy
designed to alleviate a particular condition, or set of symptoms. Like Kabat-Zinn,
its authors describe mindfulness as ‘a way of life’ (Segal, Williams, and Teasdale
2002, 261), although they consider it important that this is discovered for oneself,
and this view should therefore remain implicit, rather than explicit, in the training.

Buddhism, cognitive behavioural therapy, and MBCT

As its name suggests, MBCT developed within the field of cognitive

behavioural therapy (CBT). This model emerged in the 1960s as an extension of
behaviour therapy that targeted thoughts and feelings as well as behaviours. It is
based on the assumption that the way we perceive events largely determines how
we feel about them and, in turn, how we behave. The therapeutic relationship is
collaborative and involves investigating, testing and evaluating the client’s beliefs
and assumptions, which create difficulties if they are ‘maladaptive’; that is,
resulting from an incorrect understanding of one’s environment. An example

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RICHARD GILPIN

might be, having been bitten by one dog when a child, a client goes on to develop
a fear of all dogs. Thus, a ‘cognitive bias’ is formulated leading to a tendency to
view and interact with dogs negatively. CBT is chiefly characterised by its problem-
focused and action-orientated nature, and is based on three fundamental
propositions: (i) cognitive activity affects behaviour; (ii) cognitive activity can be
monitored and altered; and (iii) desired behaviour change may be effected
through cognitive change (Dobson and Dozois 2001, 27). In this way, CBT aims to
replace the client’s presumed distorted appraisal of life events with more realistic
and adaptive ones, via monitoring automatic thoughts, testing their validity,
‘substituting’ more realistic cognitions, and identifying and altering underlying
beliefs and assumptions that predispose one to misapprehend reality (Dobson
and Dozois 2001, 15).

Even from this brief overview, we can discern a strong degree of

compatibility between CBT’s approach and many of the techniques of cognitive
training employed by early Buddhism.

9

For example, the Vitakkasa

_

n

_

tha¯na Sutta

(Majjhima Nika¯ya, 20) presents a fivefold hierarchical scheme for controlling
unwanted, intrusive cognitions that clearly foreshadows modern CBT techniques
of thought-stopping, thought-switching, distraction and covert sensitisation
(de Silva 1990, 249). Similarly, CBT and satipa

_

t

_

tha¯na practice share an emphasis on

both the monitoring of and ‘exposure’ to one’s thought processes, in a non-
discriminatory way, in order to develop familiarity with these. Comparisons with
CBT’s general approach are also pertinent if one considers the significance placed
on self-management, self-control and self-improvement by the Buddha, together
with his emphasis on systematic training to counter (and ultimately uproot) a
particular problem (i.e. ‘unsatisfactoriness’, or dukkhata¯) in order to live with ever
greater degrees of calmness and ease in the world.

Space does not permit a full and thorough comparison of CBT and

Therava¯din practices. Nor would it be appropriate to imply Buddhism can be
reduced to simply a cognitive training. Even in this regard, differences are
apparent between the Buddhist and CBT approaches, particularly in terms of
goals, time factors (CBT is a specific, time-limited treatment), and CBT’s emphasis
on attending to the contents of consciousness over Buddhism’s emphasis on its
process and nature.

10

What is worthy of comment, however, is how the

introduction of the mindfulness-based approach into a CBT context—the point at
which MBCT emerges—seems to shift the nature of the training away from CBT’s
main distinguishing characteristics towards something much more in accord with
(although, it must be emphasised, not identical to) a generic Buddhist perspective.
Firstly, there is a movement away from the CBT insistence on a specific, short-term
goal (e.g. changing a thinking pattern) towards a more accepting, non-striving
attitude. Secondly, the time-limited nature of CBT is downplayed in favour of a
more open-ended training, where the encouragement is to continue practising
indefinitely. Thirdly, MBCT practice does not specialise in giving attention to
thought content or its evaluation, but instead suggests that these be left

THERAVA¯DA BUDDHISM AND MINDFULNESS-BASED COGNITIVE THERAPY

237

implicit—what is more important, it says, is the shifting of one’s relationship to
thoughts (Segal, Williams, and Teasdale 2002, 248).

Buddhist influences on MBCT

The explicit Buddhist influences on MBCT come most obviously through

Kabat-Zinn, much of whose inspiration for developing MBSR came via his contact
with Dharma teachings (2000, 225 – 227). He considers MBSR to be ‘a training
vehicle for the relief of suffering’ (Kabat-Zinn 2003a, 148) and therefore, in essence,
a ‘Dharma approach’ (Kabat-Zinn 2000, 230). For him, the challenge in a western
secular setting is to make the Dharma as accessible as possible by translating it
‘into a vernacular idiom, vocabulary, methods, and forms which are relevant and
compelling in the lives of the participants, yet without denaturing the dharma
dimension’ (Kabat-Zinn 2003a, 149). This effort seems to be accompanied by a
strong tendency towards syncretism, whereby he utilises non-Buddhist practices
(e.g. hatha yoga), which he sees as compatible with the Buddhist ones (Kabat-Zinn
2003b, 87). He also prefers to collectively categorise meditation, yoga, Tai Chi and
Chi Gong as ‘consciousness disciplines’ (Kabat-Zinn 2000, 233).

11

For him, the

important point is their common root, which he suggests to be mindfulness
(Kabat-Zinn 1994, 5).

Kabat-Zinn has a varied background in Buddhism, which can be divided

into:

(i)

Maha¯ya¯na influences: this is mainly via the Kwan Um school of Zen, which he
started practising with in 1973, with the teacher Seung Sahn (aka Soen Sa Nim).

However, he also references Philip Kapleau, Suzuki Roshi, and Thich Nhat Hanh

(for example, Kabat-Zinn 1990, xxv). More recently, he has practised with two

Tibetan rDzog-chen teachers.

(ii)

Therava¯da influences: here, his initial training was also in 1973, with Robert

Hover, a student of S. N. Goenka. However, from 1974 he began sitting intensive

retreats with Joseph Goldstein and Jack Kornfield, who were to form the Insight

Meditation Society (IMS). He has since maintained a strong connection with

these and other IMS-affiliated teachers, and references the Mahasi teacher

Nyanaponika in literature (for example, Kabat-Zinn et al. 1998, 777), who brings a

similar perspective to Goldstein’s.

Kabat-Zinn describes his fundamental practice as ‘a mix of Zen and

vipassana elements, now leavened by Dzogchen’ (email, 20 March 2006).
He explains how he ‘consciously “blended” different elements of Therava¯da
approaches to optimize the approach for “regular people” who have no interest in
Buddhist vocabulary’ (Kabat-Zinn email). He qualifies this by explaining that what
is ‘basically true’ is ‘that MBSR is mostly vipassana practice (in the Theravada sense
as taught by people like Joseph [Goldstein] and Jack [Kornfield] etc.) with a Zen
attitude’ (Kabat-Zinn email).

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RICHARD GILPIN

A second Buddhist influence on MBCT comes through John Teasdale who,

unlike Segal and Williams, had some experience with Buddhist teachings prior to
developing MBCT. Teasdale was initiated into Transcendental Meditation in the
1960s, and later had brief exposure to teachers from the Therava¯da (Ajahn
Sumedho), Tibetan (Sogyal Rinpoche, Ngakpa Chogyam, and Shenpen Hookham),
and Zen (Daishin Morgan) traditions, as well as the Friends of the Western
Buddhist Order (Teasdale email, 10 April 2006). From the early 1980s, his daily
practice was mindfulness of the breath as taught in Zen teacher Katsuki Sekida’s
book, Zen Training (Teasdale email, 10 April 2006). However, Teasdale explains he
‘did not become really engaged in any particular path until being pointed in the
direction of Gaia House

12

by the folk at UMASS [i.e. Kabat-Zinn and other MBSR

instructors at the University of Massachusetts]’ (Teasdale email, 10 April 2006).
As regards the Buddhist input into MBCT, Teasdale credits teachers from both Gaia
House (e.g. C. Feldman) and the IMS (e.g. Goldstein, Kornfield, and S. Salzberg)
following his initial contact with the MBSR trainers (Teasdale emails, 27 March
2006 and 5 April 2006). He also suggests that MBCT ‘has more of a Theravadan [sic ]
flavour, and less of a Zen flavour, than MBSR’ (Teasdale email, 10 April 2006), which
he thinks would be consistent with the Gaia House influence and the ‘effects of
the audiotapes in the “Introduction to Insight Meditation” program [devised by
Goldstein and Salzberg]’ that all three MBCT authors used (Teasdale email, 10 April
2006).

Kabat-Zinn’s and Teasdale’s comments both suggest the dominant

Buddhist influence on MBSR and MBCT to be the so-called Insight Meditation
tradition, also known as the ‘Vipassana Sangha’ (Rawlinson 1997, 586 – 596). This is
a predominantly western, teacher-based, lay-centred movement, which evolved
through the work of Goldstein and Kornfield et al. in the 1960s/1970s, and whose
roots lie chiefly with several Burmese vipassana¯ teachers, particularly Mahasi
Sayadaw (Rawlinson 1997, 586 – 590).

13

The Vipassana Sangha teachers

themselves tend to have practised variously with masters from different Buddhist
traditions, and tend to encourage such flexibility in their students. The movement
itself is relatively autonomous, “’international, open and prepared to ask
challenging questions about the nature of the Theravada tradition, and beyond
that, of the Buddhist tradition itself’ (Rawlinson 1997, 595). It may further be
described as ‘ultimatist’

14

in outlook, and brings with it a strong emphasis on

spiritual practice and the cultivation of ‘inner’ states of awareness, as compared
with the precept-orientated way of life espoused by many monastic-centred
Therava¯din communities (Rawlinson 1997, 121).

Assessment of how MBCT understands and uses mindfulness
compared with Therava¯da Buddhism

The previous sections have clarified several points of contact, both

theoretical and practical, between Therava¯da teachings on mindfulness and
MBCT. A more rigorous examination is required if we are to make adequate sense

THERAVA¯DA BUDDHISM AND MINDFULNESS-BASED COGNITIVE THERAPY

239

of how a secular psychotherapy, designed within the past decade to prevent
depressive relapse, might be understood in terms of a 25-century-old spiritual
tradition seeking to appraise and treat the human condition. A thorough
comparative analysis of Buddhism and psychotherapy, in terms of assumptions,
strategies and goals, would require several volumes, so care will be taken to only
elucidate what is of particular relevance to the nature and remit of MBCT.
We should also remain mindful of what might be expected, realistically, of an
eight-week, non-residential MBCT course, compared with the full range and
dimensions of practice envisaged by any Therava¯din training. Indeed, much of the
latter’s range of practices would not be applied in a Buddhist course of similar
duration and intensity.

General perspectives on mental training

Broadly speaking, MBCT’s affinities with Therava¯da Buddhism may be

framed in two ways. Firstly, like the latter, MBCT exalts mindfulness as a resolutely
positive mental quality, and advocates the development and practice of constant
mindfulness as a beneficial way of life in a similar way to many Therava¯din
teachers. Secondly, by employing techniques that can be used for the prevention
of psychological disorders, it assumes an overall strategy of self-control, which is a
key feature of the Buddhist path (de Silva 2000, 170). From this common ground,
however, qualitative differences in perspective emerge. Most obviously is how
the traditional Therava¯din understanding of sati is not confined to a type of
present-moment awareness, but also encompasses a recollective aspect. This is
perhaps to be expected, given that the Vipassana Sangha—the principal, but
highly non-traditional, Therava¯din influence on MBCT—heavily accents the
awareness aspect of mindfulness practice. This is understandable for a movement
that takes an ‘ultimatist’ perspective, and tends to elevate states of awareness to
the centre of the spiritual path. A more clear-cut departure from MBCT for the
Therava¯da as a whole, however, is the tradition’s broader understanding of
meditative training as bha¯vana¯ (‘cultivation’), a term that refers precisely to the
bringing into being of the bodhi-pakkhiya¯-dhammas in general, or the Eightfold
Path in particular (Cousins 1996, 6), and which is, therefore, concerned with the
development and perfection of a range of mental qualities that fall outside
MBCT’s aims and aspirations. Nor does the tradition suggest that meditative
techniques should be taken as a panacea for psychological disorders or the
hardships of everyday life in a way that western mindfulness-based literature
often suggests of mindfulness meditation (for example, Kabat-Zinn et al. 1998,
768). Rather, for the Therava¯da, such remedial effects of meditation are
considered only as additional beneficial outcomes in certain conditions (de Silva
2000, 175).

It seems, therefore, that MBCT adopts a particular view of mental training

that, although having parallels with the Therava¯din view, tends to slant
mindfulness as a kind of unique panacea offering, for example, improvements

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RICHARD GILPIN

in health-related attitudes, greater self-esteem, self-confidence, self-assertiveness,
and willingness to face up to the challenges of life (Kabat-Zinn 1993, 268). The
Therava¯da, while also stressing sati’s versatility, does not give it such an expansive
role in its training as a whole. This is to be expected, given how the Therava¯da sees
formal meditation as only one of three sections (i.e. sama¯dhi) of the Eightfold Path
(Majjhima Nika¯ya, I.301), albeit one that is a key basis for the arising of wisdom,
and mindfulness as only one factor of three within this. While it is often the case, in
Therava¯din teachings, for sati to be emphasised above the other two sama¯dhi
factors, this is by no means always so. In any case, MBCT’s theoretical approach
and training style seems quite distinct from the Therava¯da’s in its tendency to
reduce ‘mediKabat-Zinn 2000, 230)—and its elevation of mindfulness, at the
exclusion of other mental qualities or states of awareness, to being both a means
and an end in itself. Although the Therava¯da also sees mindfulness as something
to be cultivated for its own sake, this only becomes an activity wholly divested of
goal-orientation at a relatively advanced stage of satipa

_

t

_

tha¯na practice

(Ana¯layo 2003, 115). MBCT, on the other hand, has a much stronger inclination,
beyond its obvious therapeutic objectives, to viewing mindfulness practice as a
‘goalless quest’, where there is nothing to be ‘attained’ or used as a means to
progress towards some greater goal of ‘accumulated’ mindfulness—in short, no
samma¯ sati.

Characteristics of MBCT training

MBCT’s overall character is largely informed by both the secular, clinical

environment in which it operates, and its CBT roots. For example, as a specific,
time-limited, homework-orientated course, it is quite distinct from the ideal of
full-time practice envisaged by the Buddhist path. In reality, however, it is not
dissimilar in format to how a Therava¯din meditation course might be offered to
the laity, and it is also comparable in its encouragement to continue daily
practice beyond the course. It also shares certain of the key concerns of
Therava¯din meditative training. Firstly, it acknowledges the potential support
offered by external factors, such as quiet, calm surroundings. Secondly, it
stresses the central role of the teacher as someone who should ‘embody’ the
practice and use their own experience as a vehicle for teaching. This parallels
the Therava¯da’s special emphasis on the ‘good friend’ (kalya¯

_

na-mitta),

15

who

gives indispensable guidance and encouragement to one on the path. While
teachers’ training requirements are inevitably different for each model (as are
certain practical issues, such as MBCT instructors being paid professionals), a
similar role is envisaged for the teacher as an experienced and ethically minded
individual, who safeguards confidentiality and has the ability to guide and
counsel well.

As regards the practices themselves, MBCT’s training is a highly unusual

fusion of mainly Therava¯din techniques, which are sometimes blended with
non-Buddhist techniques. For example, Kabat-Zinn describes the body scan

THERAVA¯DA BUDDHISM AND MINDFULNESS-BASED COGNITIVE THERAPY

241

as a combination of the U Ba Khin ‘sweeping’ practice with a hatha yoga
meditation carried out in a prone position (email, 20 March 2006). This was devised
as a practical innovation for people who could not sit still for any length of time
(Kabat-Zinn email). Indeed, other primarily Therava¯din meditation forms have
been significantly adapted by MBSR/MBCT in ways not found in traditional
Therava¯din training; for example, the body scan and the ‘mindfulness of the
breath and body’ meditations both direct the meditator to ‘breathe into’ parts of
the body as a way of intensifying awareness (Segal, Williams, and Teasdale 2002,
165). Thus, MBCT demonstrates a pragmatic and liberal attitude towards adapting
meditation techniques from a variety of sources, and utilising these for its
particular ends. Such an attitude is quite consistent with the flexible,
unconventional approach of MBCT’s Vipassana Sangha influences.

Benefits, aims, and outcomes of mindfulness

The MBCT approach is, in essence, about ‘decentring’ from the content of

one’s experience by intentionally cultivating attention in a way that is
incompatible with ruminative thinking, and which instead facilitates metacogni-
tive insight. Thus, mindfulness is employed as a kind of “non-elaborative
awareness” (see Bishop et al.’s definition above) to counter, or ‘take up space’
from, habitual patterns of cognitive processing that perpetuate cycles of negative
thinking. This appears entirely compatible with the Therava¯din conception of how
mental elaboration ( papan˜ca), the outcome of a conditioned sequence of mental
events that give rise to internal conflict and strife, and expand outwards from
here,

16

can be checked by the method of sense-restraint (indriya-sa

_

mvara) based

on sati, where sati exerts a restraining influence on such proliferations.
Indriya-sa

_

mvara is of major importance in Buddhist meditative training as it

provides a way of avoiding the operation of the influxes (a¯savas), latent
tendencies (anusayas), and fetters (sa

_

myojanas), whose eradication is the central

purpose of the path (Ana¯layo 2003, 224 – 225). It is also significant in that it causes
the arising of joy and happiness (Ana¯layo 2003, 225), which are often alluded to by
MBCT instructors as beneficial outcomes of their therapy. Indeed, the potential for
meditation to bring about a variety of mental and physical benefits is
acknowledged by both MBCT and the Therava¯da.

17

But the defining point of

contact between MBCT and the Therava¯da—indeed, where the central thrust of
MBCT training comes to the fore—is their shared understanding of how
mindfulness counteracts unconscious, habitual ways of thinking and responding.
By applying bare attention to the early stages of the perceptual process, sati
‘makes conscious’ such activity, and ‘de-automatizes’ unskilful habits and
subconscious evaluations (Ana¯layo 2003, 229), so helping to reshape one’s way of
thinking, feeling, and acting.

Having said this, given its distinct aims, MBCT’s meditative project will

engender crucial differences in both experience and outcome. According to the
Therava¯da, the cognitive training outlined above establishes new mental habits

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RICHARD GILPIN

THAT will, in turn, gradually alter one’s cognitions and, therefore, one’s way of
viewing experience (Ana¯layo 2003, 228). For the Therava¯da, mindfulness practice
is ultimately concerned with investigating phenomena in terms of the three
‘marks’. Thus, with continued practice, awareness of phenomena as impermanent
(anicca), unsatisfactory (dukkha), and not-Self (anatta) will become increasingly
spontaneous and influential on one’s everyday experience until, ultimately, one
becomes liberated from any view of the world constructed and seen from a
self-centred perspective. Comparatively speaking, this wider, substantially greater
purpose necessarily imbues the practitioner’s entire experience that, in formal
meditation, is likely to be profound. For example, in vipassana¯ practice, the breath
is taken as a conditioned phenomenon to be ‘penetrated’ and understood, and
not as an object to be used as a means to relate differently to one’s thoughts, as it
is in MBCT. By extension, with successful practice, a greater intensity of, and
dispassion for, experience is likely as revelation of the true nature of objects
convey an ever-greater sense of urgency to the meditator, in terms of revulsion,
dissatisfaction, and, ultimately, detachment (Nyanaponika 1971, 148). Contrarily,
MBCT is not concerned with knowing the true nature of depression, simply
achieving freedom from its symptoms. Also, rather than emphasising detachment,
instructors tend to view practice in terms of acceptance (i.e. of one’s situation) and
appreciation (i.e. of one’s ‘alive-ness’). While MBCT’s objectives are modest by
comparison, these do not conflict per se with the Therava¯da’s. This is suggestive of
how training dedicated to the cessation of suffering may, at more preliminary
stages of practice, offer considerable scope for overlap to training dedicated to the
amelioration of mental (or physical) ill-health, such as MBCT.

However, MBCT, by directing its efforts away from realising the true nature

of the phenomena it seeks to ‘be with’, is, according to the Therava¯da, likely to
misapprehend and misdirect experience, at least at more ‘advanced’ stages in
one’s mental training. Rather than encouraging the meditator to see through the
illusion that there is a Self which is ‘observing’ phenomena, its language implies
such a position can be adopted, and by so doing one can enhance one’s control of
(particularly negative) mental and emotional experience. At a subtle level, such
habitual positioning may actually reinforce one’s sense of self such that, if one
were to continue practising beyond a course (as MBCT encourages), the very
progress such practices are designed to facilitate on the Buddhist path would be
blocked by an unrealistic view or assessment of the meditative process. In this
way, MBCT’s particular goals suggest a world-view that, in the longer term, might
not be altogether harmonious with that of its Vipassana Sangha influences.

MBCT and the satipa

_

t

_

tha¯nas

MBCT’s main formal exercises all relate to the first satipa

_

t

_

tha¯na, mindfulness

of body (ka¯ya¯nupassana¯), as do many of its informal practices. Considered
alongside Kabat-Zinn’s assertion that mindfulness of breathing is an integral part
of the formal training, and in the light of its primary Buddhist influences, MBCT

THERAVA¯DA BUDDHISM AND MINDFULNESS-BASED COGNITIVE THERAPY

243

appears very much a product of modern Therava¯din trends. There are, however,
marked differences from the Therava¯din approach to ka¯ya¯nupassana¯, which
additionally directs the meditator to contemplate both the elements comprising
one’s body, and a corpse in various stages of decay. While neither of these
contemplations are commonly taught in modern lay Therava¯din communities, the
latter practice does exemplify two important aspects of traditional practice not
shared by MBCT: (i) the Therava¯da’s emphasis on reducing and overcoming
attachment to the body by seeing it as unattractive (for example, An˙guttara
Nika¯ya, V.109); and (ii) the role played by sati’s recollective aspect in satipa

_

t

_

tha¯na

practice. Both points also hold true for how the Therava¯da understands the nature
and function of the contemplation of the body’s anatomical constitution, which is
the closest parallel to MBCT’s body scan exercise. While MBCT views this as useful
for developing non-judgemental bodily awareness and learning how to
intentionally shift one’s attention, the Therava¯din approach is chiefly concerned
with counteracting sensual desire. Despite these differences, MBCT’s general
approach to ka¯ya¯nupassana¯ actually bears a significant resemblance to how a
beginner to Therava¯da Buddhism might, in practice, be guided; that is, with a
strong emphasis placed on mindfulness of the breath and bodily sensations, and
an equal encouragement to ‘stay present’ to one’s experience. This likeness
extends to informal practice, where there is a mutual stress on bringing awareness
to different postures and routine activities, either as directed by a teacher or when
the opportunity arises. Here, both trainings emphasise the complementary nature
and crucial value of informal practice as an important way of cultivating a
‘continuity of mindfulness’ in one’s life.

How, then, does MBCT utilise, if at all, the other satipa

_

t

_

tha¯nas? The training’s

emphasis on the body is, in many ways, strategic—in that it sees greater
awareness of the body as a means to learning how better to deal with emotion
(Segal, Williams, and Teasdale 2002, 110). In Buddhist terms, awareness of emotion
pertains more to the third satipa

_

t

_

tha¯na, mindfulness of mind-states (citta¯nu-

passana¯), where such states are examined for their individual qualities and
‘wholesomeness’. This, again, is a step beyond MBCT’s approach of simply
bringing bare attention to emotions, albeit with particular attention to how
patterns in thought content might propel or ‘recycle’ these. As regards
mindfulness of feelings (vedana¯nupassana¯), this author’s enquiries with instructors
suggest some do distinguish between mindfulness of feelings/emotions and of
‘feeling-tone’ (i.e. vedana¯) while others do not. Certainly, MBCT course literature
considers the importance of how experience may be evaluated in terms of
‘pleasant’ or ‘unpleasant’, although, once again, this is a pivotal consideration not
on its own terms, but as a potential trigger point for rumination (Segal, Williams,
and Teasdale 2002, 145). MBCT makes little use of the fourth satipa

_

t

_

tha¯na,

mindfulness of dhammas (dhamma¯nupassana¯). This is unsurprising as using such a
frame of reference would require direct engagement with some key sets of
Buddhist concepts, which are specifically designed for relating one’s life to the
Dhamma and progressing towards bodhi.

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RICHARD GILPIN

Nor does MBCT make use of ‘internal’ (ajjhatta) and ‘external’ (bahiddha¯)

satipa

_

t

_

tha¯na, which are considered by the Therava¯da as mutually supportive for

developing insight. While the instructors themselves do practise mindfulness of
participants’ body language, and so forth, which is considered relevant and useful
to their positions as teachers and guides, such practices are not taught or
regarded as within the legitimate scope of practice for others. This is suggestive of
the narrower field of endeavour MBCT offers mindfulness, in both individual and
interpersonal terms. We may now look more closely at the interpersonal aspect.

The ethical dimensions of practice

MBCT instructors, as well as being bound by ethical codes appropriate for

health professionals, regularly note an implicit connection between mindfulness
practice and ethical considerations, but differ on whether there are explicit
connections. This is in marked contrast to the Therava¯din view, which is
unequivocal in conferring upon sati a crucial ethical dimension. Indeed, it frames
the entire thrust of satipa

_

t

_

tha¯na practice in terms of developing the wholesome,

and considers the practice intrinsically valuable for this very reason. Thus, an
important dimension of vedana¯nupassana¯, for example, concerns ethically
evaluating feeling in terms of ‘worldly’ (sa¯misa) and ‘unworldly’ (nira¯misa), and
relating these to progress (i.e. unworldly) or regress (i.e. worldly) on the path
(Ana¯layo 2003, 158). Similarly, well-developed citta¯nupassana¯ is seen as nurturing
an intuitive ethical sensitivity to the wholesomeness, or otherwise, of different
mind-states (Ana¯layo 2003, 177). MBCT literature does not consider practice on
these terms. However, it is worth pointing out that, despite its emphasis on the
non-judgemental quality of mindfulness, it is possible to posit a skilful/unskilful
dynamic underlying its practice. MBCT makes a clear judgement about the
undesirability of, for example, ruminative mental processes, and suggests skilful
courses of action to counter these; for example, the ‘three-minute breathing
space’ (Chaskalson 2005, 50 – 51). In this way, skilful behaviour will give rise to one
quality of feeling, and unskilful to another, so that the practitioner learns to judge
accordingly (Chaskalson 2005, 51). Therefore, it can be suggested that MBCT does
engender some degree of ethical sensibility in the meditator although, unlike
Buddhism, this is not made in explicit terms, nor is it a core motivation that defines
and shapes its practice. By extension, MBCT does not attribute mindfulness with
any definite social value, or view one’s practice as being necessarily beneficial to
other beings.

Perspectives on depression and its eradication

Pertinent distinctions also emerge between MBCT and Therava¯din

meditative trainings if we investigate the core problem that MBCT seeks to
address and alleviate: depression. MBCT defines ‘depression’ as a ‘disorder of
mood’ (Segal, Williams, and Teasdale 2002, 9) that, in its persistent form, manifests

THERAVA¯DA BUDDHISM AND MINDFULNESS-BASED COGNITIVE THERAPY

245

in symptoms such as loss of interest, sleeping difficulties, poor appetite, impaired
concentration, and feelings of hopelessness and worthlessness (2002, 9). Other
associated states include lack of motivation, fatigue, resentment, irritability, low
self-esteem, and brooding on negative aspects of oneself or others. Thus,
‘depression’ is a collective term for a variety of related, interacting mind-states
characterised by excessive negativity, inertia, obsessive/repetitive thinking, and
poor self-image. There is no direct match in terms of traditional Buddhist
concepts, but depression (as defined here) appears particularly related to the
second, third, and fourth ‘hindrances’; that is, ill-will (vya¯pa¯da), dullness/drowsi-
ness (thı¯na-middha), and restlessness/anxiety (uddhacca-kukkucca).

18

It also relates

to the ‘ego-conceit’ (asmi-ma¯na)—particularly its ‘inferiority’ aspect (i.e. ‘I am
worse than’)—and, of course, papan˜ca.

From a Therava¯din perspective, MBCT’s meditative training may not be the

most appropriate to deal with some of these problems. This is certainly true of the
‘hindrances’, which are understood to be removed by samatha meditation, where
sama¯dhi is intentionally cultivated to the point of ‘perfection’. It is particularly
samatha that calms and integrates the emotional dimensions of the mind, and
transforms one’s attitude towards oneself and others. Therefore, while vipassana¯-
orientated meditation would be necessary for uprooting the ‘wrong view’ of asmi-
ma¯na, it is the systematic development of jha¯na, characterised by positive
affective states such as joy and happiness, that will, according to Buddhist
psychology, fully undermine excessive negativity and fatigue, and restore
emotional balance. Of course, MBCT does not seek to treat people in the midst of
depression, so a ‘Buddhist prescription’ for someone in depressive relapse might
not necessarily be samatha techniques—MBCT’s approach of calm observation of
thoughts and emotional states to strengthen one’s skill in responding to potential
rumination would certainly be considered helpful, from a Therava¯din perspective.
However, faced with one or more symptoms of depression in their mild form, as
might well be the case for a MBCT participant, would probably inspire a more
samatha-directed strategy in a traditional Therava¯din training.

MBCT does actually note the usefulness of cultivating loving-kindness

(metta¯),

19

a common form of samatha practice, which especially deals with

vya¯pa¯da. For MBCT, however, loving-kindness is not employed as an end in itself—
MBCT instructors do not, on the whole, encourage the cultivation of positive
affective states—but rather as a ‘pre-generated’, core reason (i.e. ‘because I care
for myself’) for maintaining one’s practice in times of difficulty (Segal, Williams, and
Teasdale 2002, 302). As a formal practice, metta¯ is, in fact, rarely taught in MBCT.
It is more generally understood as a quality of attention generated by mindfulness
practice (Segal, Williams, and Teasdale 2002, 303). Of course, the Therava¯da also
makes connections between these qualities—metta¯ practice involves sati (as it is
sati that ‘bears in mind’ metta¯), and sati plays a crucial role in samatha. But the
MBCT perspective is quite distinct from how the tradition utilises metta¯, and a
wide range of other samatha techniques, as essential and beneficial practices.
These are not considered by MBCT in its quest to alleviate depression.

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RICHARD GILPIN

Conclusion

MBCT’s relationship with the mindfulness teachings of its principal Buddhist

influence, the Therava¯da, is a unique mixture of affinity with, adaptation of, and
divergence from its meditative training. Like the tradition, it assumes a special role
for mindfulness, and maps out a series of practices that reflect this. However, it
simultaneously narrows both the variety and ambition of mindfulness practice,
compared to the Buddhist path, while expanding its definition and its role in the
training as a whole. Its view of how mindfulness ‘works’ to re-cognise one’s habits,
and develop more skilful ways of being in the world, is in accordance with the
Therava¯da’s. For the tradition, sati is considered similarly useful in ‘tuning’ the
mind. However it also suggests a greater role for other mental factors—for
example, the importance of tranquillity, concentration, and equanimity for when
the mind needs restraining (Visuddhimagga, IX.57 – 64)—in ways not envisaged by
MBCT. MBCT also does not ‘give space’ for sati’s role in the cultivation of other
positive affective qualities, such as joy and happiness, nor does it particularly
consider them valuable in their own right, in the unequivocal way the Therava¯da
does. MBCT, of course, also has distinct goals (paradoxically couched in terms of
goalless-ness) and so inevitably departs from the ‘not-Self project’ its primary
practices were originally designed to realise. How this might affect the experience
engendered by both models of training, in both the short term and medium term,
is a rich territory for further investigation. Of course, such distinctions partly need
to be considered in the context of the Therava¯din tradition’s broader ‘world view’
of bha¯vana¯ as a process of moral and ethical development directed towards a
particular goal. After all, MBCT’s chief concern, as one might expect of a mental
health intervention designed for emotionally vulnerable people, is to tailor and
adapt its practices as it sees necessary, in order to maximise effective delivery of its
core aims within a particular time-frame. It has managed to achieve this whilst
remaining largely true to the spirit and means of its Buddhist influences, and for
this it should be commended.

NOTES

1. The five nı¯vara

_

nas are (i) desire for sense-pleasures, (ii) ill-will, (iii) dullness and

drowsiness, (iv) restlessness and worry, and (v) vacillation/doubt.

2. It is in the context of memory that the Therava¯din understanding of sati, as

occurring only in kusala consciousness, can be differentiated. Unlike the

Sarva¯stiva¯dins, who counted any kind of memory as sati, the Therava¯dins only

count as sati ‘a clarity of mind that is part of clear memory’ (Harvey BUDM03,

Session 9 section 5).

3. Ajjhatta and bahiddha¯ are often referred to as ‘internal’ and ‘external’

satipa

_

t

_

tha¯na, respectively.

THERAVA¯DA BUDDHISM AND MINDFULNESS-BASED COGNITIVE THERAPY

247

4. Samatha is viewed as particularly useful in uprooting attachment (ra¯ga), while

vipassana¯ is good for abandoning ignorance (avijja¯) (An˙guttara Nika¯ya, I.61).

5. The ‘vehicle of Insight’, where mindfulness is developed on the basis of minimal

concentration, and where ensuing insight brings about calmness due to the

strong momentary concentration it has conditioned. Historically, a more

common method of practice has been samatha-ya¯na (‘the vehicle of Calm’),

where samatha is developed first, followed by insight that focuses on these calm

states to overcome attachment to them (Harvey 1990, 253 – 254).

6. The Mahasi view argues that, of the three types of concentration understood

by the Abhidhamma, the weakest type, kha

_

nika-sama¯dhi (‘momentary

concentration’), is sufficient for developing vipassana¯ (Cousins 1994, 8).
However, it should be noted that, even with the sukkha-vipassana¯
approach, ‘path-consciousness’ still involves momentary first jha¯na (Harvey
BUDM03, Session 8 section 3).

7. Majjhima Nika¯ya, 118 and Papan˜casu¯danı¯, I.249 both allow for full awakening

based on a¯na¯pa¯nasati.

8. Langer’s (1999) construct of mindfulness is not considered as part of this study

given that it is at significant variance to, and should not be confused with, the

Buddhist conception of mindfulness, or the related conceptions dealt with by

other western researchers cited here.

9. By way of examples, de Silva lists 14 ‘behavioral strategies’ found in early

Buddhist literature. These include: ‘fear reduction by graded exposure and

reciprocal inhibition’; ‘the use of stimulus control to eliminate undesirable

behaviour’; ‘graded approach to the development of positive feelings towards

others’; and ‘use of external cues in behaviour control’ (de Silva 1990, 248).

10. Although this is certainly the general emphasis, Therava¯da Buddhist practices do

also present ways in which content of thoughts are deliberately re-perceived to

cultivate more wholesome effects; for example, to prevent the arising of ill-will

(Visuddhimagga, IX 14 – 39).

11. ‘Consciousness disciplines’ are defined as ‘methods for the systematic

cultivation of our capacity to optimise functions that we hardly understand at

all, including being in the body’ (Kabat-Zinn 2000, 233).

12. A retreat centre in Devon, England, which offers ‘guidance in different

meditative disciplines from the Buddhist traditions’ (Gaia House 2006,

‘Introduction’), and which is affiliated to the IMS in the USA.

13. The main influences on the Vipassana Sangha are extremely varied, but chiefly

fall under the following lineages: (i) Ledi Sayadaw . U Ba Khin . S.N. Goenka

(Burmese); (ii) U Narada/Mingun Sayadaw . Mahasi Sayadaw (Burmese); and

(iii) Ajahn Mun . Ajahn Chah (Thai); (iv) Buddhadasa (Thai) (Rawlinson 1997,

593).

14. Definition: ‘The perennial tendency within most forms of Buddhism to

emphasize the highest levels of wisdom or enlightenment and discard more

elementary levels’ (Cousins 1994, 38, footnote 10).

15. For example, An˙guttara Nika¯ya, I.14; Samyutta Nika¯ya V.2.

248

RICHARD GILPIN

16. The Madhupi

_

n

_

dika Sutta (Majjhima Nika¯ya, 18) maps the causal processes that

give rise to papan˜ca and wider conflict, and explains how these can be ended.

17. For example, Vinaya Pi

_

taka, II.119 notes the health and digestive benefits of

walking meditation, while Samyutta Nika¯ya III.1 explains how meditative skill can

prevent physical sickness from affecting the mind.

18. Uddhacca-kukucca, when strong, is a particularly fitting match for ‘states of a

mildly manic depressive nature’ (Cousins 1973, 118).

19. Segal, Williams, and Teasdale prefer the Welsh term trugaredd (from the

root caru: ‘to love’), which is often translated as ‘mercy’ or ‘loving-kindness’

(2002, 302).

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Email correspondence

KABAT-ZINN, J.

20 March 2006. Re: Dear Jon.

TEASDALE, J.

27 March 2006. Re: Questions.

TEASDALE, J.

5 April 2006. Re: Hi John.

TEASDALE, J.

10 April 2006. Re: Hi John.

Richard Gilpin , 7 Hanover Crescent, Brighton BN2 9SB, UK.

E-mail: [e-mail]

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