Descriptive Grammar of English : Syntax
Topic: Coordination and Embedding
Reading: Wardhaugh, Ronald. 1995. Understanding English Grammar. Blackwell . Chapter 5.
Tutor: mgr Jadwiga Bogucka

1. Coordination: syntactic constituents may be conjoined with various conjoining devices into

coordinate constructions, which usually have the same function as their coordinated
constituents.



Only two elements of similar type may be coordinated:

[

DP

Sarah] and [

DP

John] are leaving town

Tom is [

AP

angry] and [

AP

sad]

*Tom is [

AP

angry] and [

DP

a lawyer]



You can coordinate with coordinators (coordinating conjunctions) such as and, or, but or
with correlating conjunctions, such as either … or, not only..but also



You can coordinate both phrases and clauses:
Sarah [

VP

eats ice cream] and [

VP

devours candy bars] – coordinated phrases

[

TP

Sarah eats ice cream] and [

TP

John devours candy bars] – coordinated clauses

2. Embedding

One clause may be embedded within another one when it is used as a constituent in that clause
Such constituent clause is called the embedded or subordinate clause, while the clause where it
is embedded in, is called the main or the matrix clause

a.

main clause

[The girl

embedded clause

[who we saw yesterday] was his girlfriend]

b.

main clause

[I told him

embedded clause

[that he was stupid]]

c.

main clause

[He left

embedded clause

[when the bell rang]]

There are three main types of embedded clauses: (a) relative clauses, (b) noun clauses and (c)
adverb clauses.

a. Relative clauses



can be introduced by a relative pronoun (who, where, what etc), a complementizer (that, if,
whether) or a silent complementizer:
-

The girl [who we saw yesterday] was pretty

-

The girl [that we saw yesterday] was pretty

-

The girl [ we saw yesterday] was pretty



The silent complementizer cannot be used, however, as a subject of an active verb within the
relative clause:
The man stole my car / I saw the man [who stole my car]/ *I saw the man [stole my car]
But:
W e saw the girl yesterday]- The girl [who we saw yesterday] – The girl [we saw yesterday]



Relative clauses can be restrictive (cannot be omitted without a drastic change in the
meaning) or non-restrictive (omissible):
The man [who stole my car] was here yesterday – restrictive

The Italian guy, who was very handsome, borrowed salt from me – non-restrictive



Relative clauses can also be used in construction with full clauses - sentential relative clauses
He wanted out, [which didn’t surprise us at all].



Complementizer that can be used instead of a relative pronoun, but not when it is object of a
preposition:
The girl with whom we talked yesterday/*The girl with that we talked yesterday

b. Noun clauses



Clauses found in positions usually occupied by noun phrases:
[That he said it] was obvious – subject noun clause
I told him [that I needed him] – object noun clause



Extraposed noun clauses – moved from the position of the subject
It was obvious [that he said it]
With some verbs, such as happen, extraposition is required:
It happens [that we do know]



They are introduced by complementizer that, but can also be introduced by wh-words.
Noun clauses introduced by wh-words are called free relative clauses:
Take [what you want]
I asked him [who came]



Appositive noun clauses – restate the noun – with such words as fact,claim, idea, knowledge:
The fact that he called his mother is very surprising
They can be confused with relative clauses.
The claim that he called his mother is very surprising- appositive noun clause
The claim that he made is very surprising – relative clause
However:

- Appositive noun clauses cannot be introduced by which:

*The claim which he called his mother is very surprising
The claim which he made is very surprising
-

The noun can be omitted in the appositive clause:

That he called his mother is very surprising
*That he made is very surprising

-

Appositive clause can be restated using it:

It was surprising that he called his mother
*It was surprising that he mentioned

c. Adverb clauses



They are adjuncts clauses: usually a predicate adjunct (in a construction with a verb):
He resigned,[ after the takeover was completed]
or sentence adjunct (in construction with one or more clauses).
[After the takeover was completed], he resigned



Can be introduced by subordinating conjunctions (however, when, until, after, before), with
wh-words (Put it back where you found it) or a (silent) complementizer (after certain words):
I’m certain (that) he is crazy, He was happy (that) they arrived safely



Adverb clauses involving comparison are introduced by than or by as….as

3. Simple, compound and complex sentences.



Simple sentence- a sentence with one clause (main clause):
Sally dances in the ballet



Compound sentence- a sentence with coordinated main clauses

Fred sings and Sally dances.
I left but Peter stayed.
Note: Frend sings and dances is NOT a compound sentence – it contains coordinated
predicates, but not coordinated clauses



Complex sentence- a sentence with one main i.e., matrix, clause and one or more
subordinate i.e., embedded, clauses
Embedded clauses can be finite or non-finite:

Did he bring the book[ you requested]?
Bill rants and raves [when he’s angry]
I expect [him to go soon] (non-finite)



Compound-complex sentence- a sentence with two or more main clauses and one or more
subordinate clauses
[[If you visit Mexico], you must come and see us] and [you must stay a while].