Integrated engineering concerning foundry technology
realized inside co-engineering design systems
Z.Ignaszak
Foundry & CAD/CAE Laboratories of Materials Technology. Institute of Materials Technology.
Poznan University of Technology. Poznan, Poland
Abstract
The certain Integrated Engineering in the general co-engineering design systems demands to deal with a
wide range of problems, often involving deep knowledge from several disciplines. For example, the most effi-
cient method of designing and optimization in foundry production processes is Virtual Prototyping (VP) based
on multi-disciplinary physics models. These systems need the validation based also on practical knowledge
and experience concerning used models. In this case the diversification of information sources by appropri-
ated data mining procedures is necessary. In the paper the development of virtual method of casting quality
prediction, the universality of validation procedures and examples of specific data mining cases in real foundry
conditions were described, taken into account the specificity and complexity of foundry processes. This ap-
proach is usefulness in co-engineering design systems when new proposals refer to complex mechanical
structure, systems or/and installations containing casted components.
Keywords:
Concurrent engineering, CAD, casting technology design, receiving conditions, alloys mechanical properties,
design optimization, microstructure,
1 INTRODUCTION the foundry while choosing the technology of casting a
massive part made of ductile cast-iron. Moreover, the
Concepts and designs of many devices, installations, and
problem of usefulness of the information obtained from
other complex structures include the elements that may
the Data Mining procedures while experimental verifying
be, or even should be made by casting technology. Such
of the production technology and final quality control pro-
products, according to their destination, may have a mass
cedures is discussed too.
from several grams to tens tons, and, sometimes, even
more than 100 tons. While designing the casted products
2 SPECIFICITY OF LOCAL PROPERTIES OF THE
their operational goals should be considered first of all,
CASTINGS
taking into account their strength, reliability, weight, and
other traits, as, for example, resistance to corrosion or
Heterogeneous properties of the casting material and its
their aesthetic features. Another significant advantage
criteria aren t explicit. This sometimes gives rise to unin-
consists in the term and the cost of manufacture, being
tentional conflicts between the foundries and their cus-
usually lower as compared to other manufacturing meth-
tomers. Among the last ones not only the final users of
ods.
the products might be mentioned but also the groups of
the constructors, designers, and some of the experts
This results in formulating the shape and dimension crite-
acting at their order, inclusive of the arbitrating proce-
ria and the choice of appropriate material. Both these
dures.
domains should be closely interconnected with a view to
obtain an optimal product. The designer, in order to meet
The lack of effective communication between the manu-
these criteria, should have a deep knowledge, i.e. deep
facturers of the casted semi-products and the receivers
enough to enable accurate formulating the Technical
engaged in their further refining and use is inadvertently
Acceptance Requirements (TAR) considered as a basis
initiated already in the syllabus of the technological stud-
for choosing and elaborating the casting technological
ies, from where it s transferred to the post-graduate stud-
versions. Unfortunately, in case of most casts the accep-
ies and specialist courses. Unfortunately, the synergy is
tance requirements (TAR) are formulated on a simplified
not a strong point of this communication [1].
way, because of designer s prudence. It is assumed, at
During the casting quality tests carried out with the Not
the same time, that the material at the casting cross-
Destructive Testing (NDT) procedures (included in the
section has averaged properties (as opposed to the real
Data Mining procedures) the casting quality is assessed
situation) and, in consequence, such lowered values of
with reference to the customer s quality requirements
properties are assumed for purposes of the strength cal-
(TAR specification).
culation. This is in disagreement with specific features of
Under the operational conditions (during using of ma-
the load and varying stresses at the casting cross-section,
chines) the test procedure is related to determination of
leading in result to overdimensioned casting and its ex-
the effect of the complex: thermal, mechanical, chemical,
cessive weight.
and other similar factors on the wear stage of the casted
In accordance with the Concurrent Engineering principles
part. Should the period of guarantee still hold, such de-
the constructional & material optimization may be further
fects suggest inadherence to the casting acceptance
advanced, particularly provided that the designers are
conditions (TAR) resulting in lack of detecting the defects
aided by a specialized technological group. Virtualization
during the reception tests in the foundry. On the other
of the casting process and its optimization based on the
hand, this may also be due to extreme conditions that
quality forecasting provide the designer with the sugges-
occur during the using, e.g. local stress growth leading to
tions at the stage of the product creation. The paper pre-
the defects in the form of discontinuity in the material.
sents an example illustrating the need of negotiation and
This may be conducive to doubts and related to inadher-
consulting between the orderer (designer, customer) and
ence to the cast quality requirements (TAR), right from racy (discontinuities), even with the help of standardized
the beginning. indices (classes) of acceptable imperfection. The problem
goes deeper  down to the conceptual & construction
Experience shows that the larger the casting the most
circles. The designers of the casted parts, in most cases,
difficult is formulation of a clear and explicitly acceptable
do not properly manage the acceptance procedures for
cast quality postulates. This is a case particularly when
the castings charged with any a priori assumed disconti-
the cast reception conditions TAR (criteria) are to be
nuities.
formulated. Even the strength samples (separately
casted, attached, or trepanned from a casting) ambigu- At this stage the structural anomalies consisting in differ-
ously characterize the casted alloy (e.g. the cast iron of ent phases generated in result of crystallization and in
appropriate composition), due to occurrence of deviations compactness of the primary solidifying structure (crystal-
in the sample crystallization conditions as compared to lite packing) in the casted parts should be clearly distin-
the real time-temperature casting crystallization condi- guished from the so-called production defects, arising in
tions. other manufacturing processes [6]. Rating all the manu-
facturing defects, all the structural imperfections, mainly
According to the casting design, various thicknesses of its
the discontinuities, among the same class is a misunder-
walls, and the production technology applied while its
standing resulting in more difficult interpretation of the
manufacturing, the structure finally obtained may be
defect nature and more problematic communication be-
differentiated and, in consequence, local strength levels
tween particular groups of the technology specialists with
may vary too, leading even to occurrence of pathological
the designers.
zones. The gradient of the properties observed at the cast
cross-section may be duly controlled, with simultaneous Each assessment of the discontinuity defect of a metal
acceptation of  tolerance of damages . The gradient may product must consider two basic facts:
be forecasted with the use of simulating systems belong-
" any metal product, at the beginning of its life, is
ing to the Virtual Prototyping class (e.g. Magmasoft, Nova
manufactured in result of crystallization from the
Flow&Solid, Procast, QuickCast [2]). Nevertheless, effi-
liquid state, i.e. from an alloy of a definite chemi-
ciency of these tools depends on the user s knowledge.
cal composition and a definite but frequently un-
In the statistical specifications related to the world-wide
known metallurgical quality (described by such
cast manufacturing a growing share of ductile cast-iron
parameters as, among others, the condition of
castings is observed, which is always a very attractive
crystallization nuclei, the conditions of crystal
constructional material. This is due to simultaneous oc-
growth, the state of non-metallic inclusions and
currence of their relatively high strength and a whole
crystallization of intermetallic phases);
gamut of good plasticity properties. Additional considera-
" not all metal products after their crystallization
tion of low manufacturing cost of these cast irons justifies
are subject to further manufacturing operations
the permanent growth in the number of orders coming
that locally or globally interfere with the structure
from nearly each of industrial branches becomes clear.
state, i.e. with the condition of the structural
Particular interest is observed in the automotive, transpor-
anomalies. Such operations include, for exam-
tation, cement, mineral, and power engineering industries.
ple, plastic processing, thermal processing,
The interest is observed for any size of the castings,
processing of the surface layer, joining the parts
inclusive of medium- and large dimension products, in
by the welding technique.
which the cast carbon steels and even low-alloyed cast
steels is permanently superseded by the ductile cast
In the presentations and analyses of the material defects
irons.
the metallurgical (in sense of theoretical metal science)
The situation gave rise to new and more intense chal-
approach usually predominates. The literature on metal
lenges related to assessment of the state of structure
science is then mainly cited, instead of less frequent
compactness of the casting made of the alloy, thus requir-
references to the foundry-metallurgy or production engi-
ing enlarging the knowledge on their interpretation.
neering literature items. The considerations are related to
the material quality, separately from current knowledge on
What concerns the service activity of the NDT Laboratory
the mechanisms of the imperfection generated in statu
Centers and units, it includes the offers pertaining to the
nascendi, i.e. during the crystallization and solidification
research of the location and estimation of technological
processes. The general, classic knowledge on solidifica-
casting defects, apart from the defects of the metallurgical
tion of simple ingots, distinguished also by large dimen-
products, forgings, and welded joints [3]. What is symp-
sions, as a primary simply shaped casting, a casting with-
tomatic, the offer enlarged by readiness for consulting the
out thermal spots and porosity defects, segregations,
productibility features of the construction and defining the
blowholes, and cracks, does not encompass the entire
acceptable quality level of the structure is constrained
knowledge on solidification of the castings, not only the
only to the welded joints. May be, this is due to the de-
cast steel ones but also made of aluminum or copper
mand for such services.
alloys. The knowledge contains neither topics related to
Hence, what is the stage of the non-destructive tests of
solidification of the castings made of the alloys of the
castings? Can we provide the operators having the high-
same type but not subject to plastic processing nor other
est authorization with the technological knowledge allow-
alloys unsuitable for machining.
ing for defining the type of discontinuity, in accordance
The first stage of know-how may be, of course, consid-
with its nature and origin? Are the available materials and
ered as simultaneous specification of such defects gener-
literature sufficient for undertaking such a challenge?
ated during the metallurgical manufacturing processes,
The reference items [1,4,5] indicate complexity of the
as: gas bubbles, porosities, inclusions of foreign inclu-
problem and answer why it is related, first of all, to the
sions, segregation of the components, stratification, in-
foundries where the non-destructive tests are carried out
complete fusions, surface and internal cracks.
while the knowledge and skill of the specialists and opera-
Hence, once we refer to the identification and significance
tors should be based on solid foundations of the techno-
of the real material defects, let us pay attention to the
logical knowledge.
fact, that the matter consists not only in incompliance with
The same may be said about the foundry customers who
the condition (brief foredesign) assumed in the stress
show the difficulties with precise defining the casting
calculation  i.e. ideally homogeneous structure and me-
acceptance conditions (TAR) related to allowable inaccu-
chanical properties, without any significant internal de- favourable conditions for crack development, due to vicin-
fects. Even in case of consideration of the cross-section ity of possible discontinuities (micro-cracks, gas bubbles)
weakening in the form of reduction of the cross-section in the weld acting as the crack initiation places. In the
area subject to an external load, the discontinuity defects area of the weld seam the material structure is strongly
may, under the service conditions, initiate the cracks that changed. Therefore, the lack of proper thermal process-
then develop in an unforeseeable propagation. Such an ing of the zone leads to the hazard for the welded con-
evading control crack propagation may, of course, be structions.
conducive to high probability of the product destruction.
The mechanics of cracking tries to manage these prob-
3 ACCEPTANCE REQUIREMENTS OF THE CASTED
lems and to assess the rate of the crack development
PRODUCTS NOT SUBJECT TO PLASTIC FORM-
[1,7,8]. Unfortunately, the theoretical foundations of the
ING
crack and micro-crack development are, by necessity,
The concept of the technical acceptance requirements
constrained to a material that is homogeneous in the
(TAR) is a subject of permanent discussion between the
crack region.
manufacturers and customers of the castings. The last
Hence, how should we estimate the strength of the defec-
ones, encouraged by the designers, shall always indicate
tive elements in order to consider the whole potential
the need of using the materials approaching an ideal
provided, after all, by the mechanics of cracking?
state, of undetectable (i.e. illegible with the use of the
applied testing methods) internal defects [1]. The opinion
A crack (i.e. the place of its initiation) in the casting may
saying that the foundrymen try to  smuggle or to attain
be considered as material stratification in the location of
acceptance of the defects is a common way for depicting
initial occurrence of
their incompetence or the shortcomings in this branch of
" shrinkage porosity;
manufacturing.
" gaseous (gas- shrinkage) porosity;
Specific features of casting formation in the mould is
always decisive for the gradient of the structure com-
" brittle phase;
posed of particular phases, for existence and size of
interdendrite microporosities and, therefore, on the cast-
" oxide film;
ing mechanical properties. Degree of the variability de-
" the cracks due to residual stresses (hot tear, hot
pends on the type of the applied technology. In the cast-
crack, cold crack).
ing zones considered as compact ones, (i.e. having pos-
sible discontinuities that are undetectable with the NDT
The item [1] shows that the set of casting discontinuity
methods) each of the phases is distinguished by a certain
names exceeds the number and the types of the defini-
level of microporosity. These phases are the most deci-
tions used in case of the discontinuities typical for other
sive for mechanical characteristics of the samples cut out
manufacturing processes. In case of the castings the
from these locations of the casting or from the test sam-
location of the defect occurrence is sometimes decisive
ples (the trepanned, attached, or separately casted one).
and may explicitly indicate the type of the defect and
Under these circumstances formulation of clear criteria of
define the kind of risk possible during the use of the final
casting acceptance (TAR), adapted to real material effort
product. In case of a casting the area of possible location
needs of the final product with classically computed
of a given defect extends over its whole volume. In case
cross-sections (i.e. allowable limit strength, and equiva-
of a welded joint the area is constrained to a narrow and
lent stresses) is difficult indeed.
easily identified weld zone extended by the zone of its
interaction with the native material. The fact that some
Hence, the acceptance conditions are formulated on
terms related to the local defects are identical (c.f. the
various manners. They may be defined based on:
Table below) does not mean that the nature and reasons
" a priori assumptions of the quality class on the
of these defects are equal.
grounds of experience on operating of similar
1  casting 2  welded joint Notes
products, with the cases of boosting the quality
class due to so-called  process prudence or by
crack, single bubble, dissipated gas
reason of achieving lower price, in case of diffi-
porosity, non-metallic inclusion, common
culty in achieving higher casting class in the
phase precipitation at the grain for 1 and 2
foundry;
boundaries
shrinkage poros-
" division of the wall thickness into the core and
partial joint
ity, shape and specific
boundary zones;
penetration or
kind phase for 1 and 2
lack of fusion,
" ordering manufacturing of a test-casting (proto-
degeneration
type) and trepanning the samples from the cast-
Beside the location, also the intensity and dissipation of
ing, inclusive of their comprehensive wide testing
the internal discontinuities specified for comparison for a
(static and fatigue tests), analysis and assess-
casting and a welded joint, should be indispensably re-
ment of the fracture type, in order to macro-
ferred to the course of phenomena occurring during their
mapping of the casting features;
generation. [1,9]
" computer simulation mapping of the casting
Many examples cited in [7] indicate that most of the ca-
process and phase transitions (forecasting) of
tastrophes caused by brittle cracking occurred for the
the virtual structures (only main phases, without
welded structures. For example, riveted bridge doesn t
consideration of non-metallic inclusions, phase
cracked in this way. The reasons of such an uncontrolled
degenerations, etc.) and, based thereon, deter-
cracking may not be constrained only to the discontinuity
mination of a map of virtual properties of the
located in the weld itself and its cohesion with the native
casting (with the use of empirical aiding formula
material (lack of fusion, incomplete fusion). The zone of
in the models) [10];
the native material fusion and the zone of thermal shock
interaction are conducive to formation of brittle phases
" definition of a priori primary acceptance condi-
and large local stresses, should the steel (cast steel) be
tions and UT tests of real castings detected by
welded under the environment temperature. This creates
their entire scanning, with indication of all the
discontinuity zones (their location and intensity) fault. Moreover, the customer had already received the
and, afterwards, making decision on acceptance, first castings and implemented them into his equipment.
upon FEM computation with consideration of the
The fact that such a pathologic structure occurs in the
information on detectability of the discontinuities.
casting while the casting itself meets the operation re-
quirements means that the designer does not control the
The last procedure is a specific novelty in formulating of
material aspects of his design.
the conditions of casting acceptance, that anticipates the
arbitrary approach to respecting the quality class, prohibit- The matter was a subject of the re-negotiations between
ing the excess of the discontinuity size (named  non con- the foundry and the designer. A change in the acceptance
formity ) above the level defined for a given class. This conditions has been proposed, consisting, on the one
new procedure is used by some casting customers in the hand, in admittance of some minor discontinuities (within
USA (the cement industry). the same classes: UT2, 3 and 4) in the locations of mini-
mal operation stresses and, on the other, addition of the
requirement of correct structure of ductile iron in the
4 EXAMPLE OF A PRODUCTION CASTING
whole casting. This induced the need for developing a
Formulation of the casting acceptance conditions (TAR)
new production technology that ensured elimination of the
with regard to possible acceptance of internal discontinu-
 chunky graphite from the structure. Based on the ex-
ity defects is usually based on the practice and technical
perience of the author of the present paper a large
habit prompted by routine. This deprives the specialists,
circumferential riser has been replaced by a point riser in
namely foundry production engineers, quality controllers,
an exothermal-insulation sleeve. More external chills have
even designers, and users of the castings containing
been applied. The sequence of the simulation results is
constructional structure, of clear justification of the chosen
shown in Fig. 1B. The prognosis indicates that the discon-
quality class. The casting orderers are usually unable to
tinuities (porosity below 2%) appeared between the ribs in
present a reason why the casting should satisfy the re-
the locations, where the designer allowed for the disconti-
quirements of a definite class.
nuities, keeping the quality class as for UT3. Results of
Based on the acceptance tests performed by customers
the validation tests (by Data Mining) carried out with the
in a selected foundry the quality criteria should be ana-
ultrasonic (UT) and radiographic (RT) methods confirmed
lyzed, together with quality standards and the require-
occurrence of only these admissible discontinuities.
ments related to the non-destructive test equipment
The first version (Fig.1A) was free of porosity in these
placed at the disposal. Moreover, the schemes of com-
locations and, in consequence, an outsider could consider
munication links and the flow of information on the casting
the second version (Fig.1B) as worse than the first one.
quality should be properly developed in accordance with
Nevertheless, the casting made according to the second
the acceptance requirements TAR and the degree of their
version was distinguished by proper mechanical charac-
fulfillment within a system of the technology optimization.
teristics of the samples cut out from various casting parts
The example of a ductile iron casting ordered by a com-
(Fig 4). Thus the goal has been achieved. At the same
pany manufacturing the attachments designed for large-
time, saving of about 600kg of liquid cast iron (due to
size hydraulic equipment may illustrate the matter.
elimination of the large riser) gave much better economic
Fig. 1A shows a sequence of CAD/CAE simulation results result. This allowed for improving a so-called liquid metal
of the solidification process of the above mentioned duc- yield from 61% in the first version to 89% in the second
tile iron casting. The acceptance conditions TAR indicated one.
by the designer admitted the local UT3 quality classe
Proper material-technological identification, definition of
(allowable volume discontinuities detected by the ultra-
pre-processor parameters for the modeling used in this
sonic method according to the EN 12680-3 Standard). On
case, execution of prototype castings, proper acquisition
the grounds of these conditions and the drawing of the
and application of the knowledge on the course of the
casting after its machining, the zones have been defined
prototype process in the framework of on-line and off-line
in which respectively the discontinuities of the UT2, UT3
Data Mining [10] gave a positive result. Variety of the
and UT4 classes (EN 12680-3 Standard) are admissible
information on the process, together with its usefulness
(Fig. 2 and fig. 3A).
and integration depends on the skill in synthesizing of the
According to Fig. 1A. the proposed production technology knowledge and the use of innovative solution based on it.
meets the acceptance conditions as the shrinkage defects
are located only in the riser. A forecast precludes occur-
5 SUMMARY
rence of the defects in the main part of the casting.
The paper is a kind of indication of the need for modifying
Hence, one might assume that such a version is a correct
the designing procedures of casted semi-products, aimed
one. Fig. 1A also presents basic parameters of this first
at accurate mapping of the structure and its discontinui-
version of the production technology. The results of ultra-
ties, i.e. of local material mechanical properties, in order
sonic test (carried out on a prototype in the framework of
to optimizing the designing of casted products, without
the off-line Data Mining) confirm this, although in some of
averaging of properties.
the prototype castings the wrong feeding cases have
A novelty of the proposed approach consists in larger
been observed (c.f. Fig. 3B,C and D) due to unstable
interpretation of the effect of allowable discontinuities on
casting conditions. This only gives evidence of the need
potential hazard of the product damage during its using.
of supervision and more efficient operation of the quality
The criteria of active cross-section decrement and crack
service.
initiation should be taken into account.
The strength characteristics of the samples cut out from
Necessity of quantitative consideration of local character
the casting that complied with the acceptance conditions
of mechanical properties of the castings is pointed out, as
(the zone under the circumferential riser showing no dis-
being highly specific as compared to the products manu-
continuity in the framework of the simulation forecast and
factured in other manufacturing processes (forging,
after the UT and RT control tests) were unfortunately
stamping). This is related to the structures and their pa-
unsatisfactory as for this type of the nodular cast iron. It
thologies in the products created directly by crystallization
was due to occurrence of the degenerated graphite
of liquid alloy. The local character is unrepeatable due to
( chunky ) under the riser (Fig. 4). Neither the designer
complexity of the phenomena that occur during the solidi-
nor the customer have remarked this structural-strength
fication and cooling of the castings and because of the
need of keeping stable manufacturing conditions. This is
strictly related to formulation of the casting acceptance to
formulation of the casting acceptance conditions
alloy - EN-GJS-460-12-622, pouring temp.1320C, casting-
alloy - EN-GJS-460-12-622, pouring temp.1320C, casting-
reiser-gating system weight 1162kg-503kg-76kg, height of
reiser-gating system weight 1162kg-61kg-80kg, riser in iso-
classic riser 190mm
exo sleeve
Figure 1A (top): First version of technology and
simulation results of solidification using Magmasoft
system
(with shrinkage porosity prognosis)
Figure 1B (right): Second version of technology and
simulation results of solidification using Magmasoft
system
(with shrinkage porosity prognosis)
 Rm Re A5 Rm Re A5
461 336 22 500 352 16
Figure 4 Comparison of mechanical properties of trepanned
and attached samples for 2 technological versions (c.f.
Fig.1A and Fig. 1B). A place of cut, B,C machined samples
and tension test with extensometer, D,E structurec contain-
ing respectively: degenerate graphite ( chunky ) for first
version and correct nodular graphite (scale marker 100 źm).
(TAR), the justification of which often exceeds the possi-
bilities of the orderers. The recent literature of 2006 deliv-
ers the examples of such a procedure for other castings
(e.g. for a large-size ductile iron casting designed for the
cement industry [5] and a small Al-Si casting for the auto-
motive industry, last described in [11]). Such an approach
inspires the designers and production engineers to inno-
Figure 2 Outline of predefined zones for casting com-
vative elaborations and progress in better matching of the
pared with machining drawing and class quality zones.
gradient of a casting property to the casting working ef-
fort. It s the innovation trend in integrated engineering
teams working on the new mechanical objects containing
Real defective zone 
the castings (any alloys and sizes).
A. class UT3
disqualifying the casting
Acknowledgements: for Ms. Joanna Ciesiolka and
class UT4
Mr. Bogdan Beszterda for their help and collaboration.
REFERENCES
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C.
B. sen of casting defects on the example of the casting of
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Specimens trepanned from casting
Third monograph  Modern materials and technological
First version (Fig.1A) Second version (Fig.1B)
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Rm Re A5 Rm Re A5
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Attached samples