English` is a common core. It is realized only in the different forms Accent  a type of pronunciation characteristic to a specific group of Political/cultural differences
of the language that we actually hear or read. people. - different political concepts
Six kinds of varieties of the English language: Cockney accents: Cockney speakers have a distinctive accent and - different stages of education
·ð regional dialect, and occasionally use rhyming slang.; the extensive -universities
glottalisation e.g. cat [ kć"t]. Monophthongisation; It concerns -British have Halloween that comes from America
·ð education and social standing
words with a diphthong /aŠ/; is h-dropping at the beginning of some BrE AmE
·ð subject matter
words; is g-dropping. It occurs in words like: talking; Cockney speech Parliament Congress
·ð medium
is full of vocalisation of /l/. Oxbridge Ivy League
·ð attitude
Creole is a pidgin which has become the mother tongue of a Groundhog Day
·ð interference
community, and therefore has native speakers. Vocabulary is Synonyms
Regional varieties:
extensively borrowed from other languages, but the grammar often 1. different names for the same item
- it is regional dialects
shares few traits with the languages that contributed vocabulary. BrE AmE
- in the course of time, with poor communications and relative
Grammar and syntax are as fully developed as any other long- sweets candy
remoteness, such dispersion results in dialects becoming so
established tongue. cot crib
distinct that we regard them as different languages. It was reached
Dialect - a variety of a language that is a characteristic of a particular nappy diaper
by the Germanic dialects that are now Dutch, English, German,
group of the language's speakers. A dialect is distinguished by its holdall carryall
Swedish. It hasn`t been reached with the dialects of English that
vocabulary, grammar, and pronunciation. 2. you can use these terms interchangeably (preferred
have resulted from the regional separation of English-speaking
Isogloss - is the geographical boundary of a certain linguistic feature, word or comprehensible for the other nation)
communities both within the British Isles and throughout the
such as the pronunciation of a vowel, the meaning of a word, or use BrE AmE
world.
of some syntactic feature. Major dialects are typically demarcated by luggage baggage
- regional variation seems to be realized usually in phonology (we
groups of isoglosses. jumper sweater
generally recognize a different dialect from a speaker`s
Langue (French, meaning "language") and parole (meaning post mail
pronunciation before we notice that his vocabulary is also
"speech") are linguistic terms used by Ferdinand de Saussure. 3. British words can be used in America but never
distinctive)
Langue describes the social, impersonal phenomenon of language as American words in Britain
- there are indefinitely many dialects of English
a system of signs, while parole describes the individual, personal BrE AmE
- examples: American E, Irish E, Scottish E, Canadian E, Australian
phenomenon of language as a series of speech acts made by a coffin casket
E, New Zealand E
linguistic subject. queue line
Education and social status:
Jargon is language that is specific to a particular profession or a bath bathtub
- within each of the dialect areas, there is considerable variation in
particular group of people who share a common interest. 4. British adopts American words
speech according to education and social standing
Oftentimes, though not always, only people from these professions BrE AmE
- uneducated (can be indentified with the regional dialect) and
or groups know the meaning of their own jargon. Jargon can be ice ice cream
educated speech (it moves from dialectal usage to a form of
informal or formal, depending on the profession or the group. line track
English that cuts across dialectal boundaries)
Pidgin is a language with a reduced range of structure and use, with tin can
- we can distinguish standard and non-standard English
NO native speakers. It grows up among people who do not share a eraser rubber
- educated English refers to standard English
common language but who want to communicate with each other. 5.British adopt new meaning
- educated English is mainly used by government agencies, the
"Pidgin" involves situations in which a population speaks several BrE AmE
learned professions, the political parties, the press, the law court
different languages and is required to communicate on a regular caravan caravan/trailer
and the pulpit
basis, but none of the languages of the population has primacy over pharmacy pharmacy
- there is an important polarity of uneducated and educated
the others. chemist`s drugstore
speech
Register has to do with the style of one's language: formal as
- uneducated English refers to social dialects
opposed to informal, serious as opposed to easygoing, friendly and a car
Standard English
familiar as opposed to more respectful and distant. A register can American and British have different names of parts of the
- uniformity throughout the world is greatest in what is from most
also reflect the specific style of language one uses. For example, one car
viewpoints the relatively unimportant matter of spelling
could speak or write in a business register, a scientific register, a BrE
- even though printing houses in all English-speaking countries
legal-law register, or an academic register. AmE
retain a tiny area of individual decision, there is a basically a single
Received Pronunciation is the accent of Standard English in England, windscreen windshield
system, with two minor subsystems
with a relationship to regional accents similar to the relationship in side light parking light
- the one is the subsystem with British orientation with distinctive
other European languages between their standard varieties and their
forms in only a small class of words: colour, centre, leveled etc. It
regional forms. wing mirror side mirror
is used in all English speaking countries expect the United States.
"RP" stands for "Received Pronunciation", the traditional name for accelerator = sth that speeds up gas pedal
- the two is the American subsystem with forms like: color, center,
the standard British English accent. "Received" really means
level etc.
"accepted in good society", which shows the prescriptive social
- in Canada in most areas the British system is used but some
character of the original concept. Today, "RP" is used to refer to the AmE BrE
publishers follow the American subsystem or some a mixture
pronunciation usually taught to foreigners -unlike the other English ax/axe axe
- in grammar and vocabulary, Standard English presets somewhat
accents it is not associated with any one georgraphical area, and can baggage luggage
less of a monolithic character
be heard spoken as a prestige accent thoughout the British Isles. baptize baptize/ise
National standards of English
"GA"or "General American", (or AE-American English) is the accent bathtub bath
·ð British and American English
spoken by the majority of Americans, namely those who do not have behavior behaviour
- they are overwhelmingly predominant both in the number of
a noticeable Eastern or Southern accent. canceling cancelling
distinctive usages and in the degree to which these distinctions are
Standard English is the literary dialect used in formal writing and in can tin
`institutionalized`
the speech of well educated persons. It descends from the West candy sweets
- grammatical differences are few but some are widely known:
Saxon dialect of Old English, specifically the dialect of London. caryyall holdall
AmE has two past participles foe `get` and BrE only one
Non-standard English includes many regional dialects, whose casket coffin
in BrE the indefinite pronoun `one` is repeated in co-reference
grammatical forms and words ( such as ain't and varmint, for catalog catalogue
where AmE uses `he`
example) are not exactly incorrect but are unsuited to formal center centre
- lexical examples of difference are numerous; some of them:
discourse check cheque
BrE AmE
Social dialect (sociolect)  depends on your social status, class and color colour
railway railroad
education; types: standard and non-standard. commuter season ticket holder
tap faucet
Regional dialect  language of people who live in some region; conductor guard
autumn fall
types: rural and urban. curb kerb
valves tubes
An idiolect is the dialect of an individual person at one time. This criticize criticize/ise
·ð Scotland, Ireland
term implies an awareness that no two persons speak in exactly the defense defence
- Scots is perhaps nearest to the self-confident independence of
same way and that each person s dialect is constantly undergoing dialog dialogue
BrE and AmE, though the differences in grammar and vocabulary
change e.g., by the introduction of newly acquired words. Most diaper nappy
are rather few
recent investigations emphasize the versatility of each person s divided highway dual
- Irish English is also regarded as independent of BrE by
speech habits according to levels or styles of language usage. carriageway
educational and broadcasting services
draft draught
·ð Canadian English
Spelling differences drugstore chemist`s
- sth between BrE and AmE, to a large extent it is closer to AmE;
1. in words of more than one syllable ending in  our in BrE, AmE elevator lift
The United States, as a larger community than Canada, has an
omits the u: engineer driver
enormous influence on the smaller, not least in language.
AmE BrE favor favour
- the problem of vocabulary
-ize CRITICISE -ise freight goods
- the most famous feature of CanE: A nice day, eh?; `eh` at the end
-or BEHAVI-OUR -our gage gauge
of the sentence, similar to question tag but more universal
- og CATALOG-OGUE - ogue gas, gasoline petrol
- great vowel shift: i -> ei -> aI ; au -> eu -> au
-er CENTER/ CENTRE -re gearshift gear lever
·ð South Africa
-ense DEFENSE-CE -ence gray grey
- it is in remote from the day-to-day impact of BrE and AmE
2. in verbs ending with an unstressed syllable vowel + consonant, the hood bonnet
- South African English in educated use is virtually identical with
British double the final consonant before  ing and  ed: holdall carryall
BrE, but in vocabulary there are considerable differences
canceling cancelling humor humour
- firstly colonized by the Dutch, later Boers called farmers; they
traveled travelled ice cream ice
settled there and discovered more in South Africa
programing programming kilometer kilometre
- Boers spoke Afrikaans, fought against the invaders; the British
3. nouns ending in  ogue in BrE are shortened to  og in AmE: labor labour
using old-fashioned terror  commanda
catalog catalogue license licence
- apartheid comes from Afrikaans, meaning system of racial
dialog dialogue license plate number plate
segregation
4. one large group in which we have option line queue
·ð East & West Africa
-ize -ise/ize liter litre
- the majority of white people spoke Afrikaans
-ization -isation/ization mail post
- English minority spoke Bantu languages
criticize criticize/criticize mold mould
- there were few white people
regularize regularize/regularize muffler silencer
- after the World War II they become independent and faced the
baptize baptize/baptise one-way ticket single ticket
problem of the choice of language
5. in words like theater, -er in AmE is often equivalent to  re in BrE: overpass flyover
- in East Africa they chose English as an official language of
center centre pajamas pyjamas
business, education and general communication
kilometer kilometer phonograph gramophone
- West African English is spoken in West Africa
liter litre programing programming
- in contrary to Australia and New Zealand where English became
theater theatre radio wireless
standard, in Africa English doesn`t really resemble standard English
6. some words spelled  ense in AmE have  ence in BrE: round-tripticket return ticket
or any of them; but grammar and vocabulary are standard; but
defense defence rubber eraser
there are grammar and pronunciation problems
license licence skeptical sceptical
- they don`t distinguish between long and short vowels
7. there are some spelling differences that are unique to particular story storey
- they translate their own expressions into English
words: subway underground
wedding bells  invitation for a wedding
check cheque sweater jumper
be in state  be pregnant
draft draught theater theatre
give cola  offer a bribe
gage gauge tire tyre
have longlegs  be an influential person
curb kerb track line
- no distinction between countable and uncountable nouns
mold mould traveling travelling
·ð Australia
plow plough truck lorry
- Australia English is undoubtedly the dominant form of English in
the Antipodes pajamas pyjamas trunk boat
- the differences in pronunciation, vocabulary were broken skeptical skeptical windshield windscreen
- the local phenomena: British people would see strange animals story storey
and they took names for them from the Aborigins: kangaroo, koala tire tyre
- weak education: in most cases people who went there were poor skillful skilful
educated; occurrence of slang expressions, these from BrE are still fulfill fulfil
to be found in Australian English but no longer in BrE gypsy gipsy
- the problem of local culture: different civilizations inquiry enquiry
- interference from other languages e.g. from the Dutch colony Morphology differences
- it is the place of mainly convicts from London midlands AmE BrE
- pronunciation close to Cockney or Midlands received Ä…ð gotten/got got
- in Australian language there are words with different meanings stricken struck (only in idioms)
than in standard BrE proved/proven proved
·ð New Zealand wed wedded
- New Zealand English is more like BrE than any other non- learned (regular form) learn (irregular form)
European variety, but it now feels the powerful influence of
Australia and  to small degree  of the USA. Grammar differences
1. the American word gotten, as a past participle of get:
·ð India
- a part of the British empire from the early 18th century 2. AmE has a useful construction to refer to a period of time
- Indian English: strange collocations, different idioms The tour lasted from May through August. (AmE)
The tour lasted from May to August. (BrE)
- we have people who spoke English perfectly and also those less
educated, speaking English with mistakes; their English is non- 3. in BrE the collective nouns such as team, audience, the public can
be treated as singular or plural, whereas the singular is normal in
standard
AmE
- General Pronunciation in India is different
The committee has voted in favour of the bill
- vocabulary is the major problem
4. AmE has a preference for the subjunctive verb with verbs like
- in contrary to Africa, British didn`t invest in education
insist, recommend, suggest and avoids verb `should`
- the English noticed that it would be impossible to control the
I suggested he do (AmE)
country without help of local people so they took most important
I suggested he should do (BrE)
posts and the lower post were occupied by Indians so they learned
5. AmE uses adverbs instead of adjectives
English from the upper class English people and imitated them
It`s real nice (AmE)
- Indian English is a strange mixture
It`s really nice (BrE)
- after World War II when India gained independence there were
6. the use of `like` as a conjunction instead of `as if`
14 languages that were official
It seems like we have made another mistake. (AmE)
- it is standard now but with some interference of local languages
It seems as if we have made another mistake. (BrE)
·ð West Indies (Jamaica, Barbados)
7. in AmE the past tense is used rather than the perfect for the
- there was English as a second language
recent past
- pidgins and creoles
he just came (AmE)
Pidgin- a simplified language that develops as a means of
he has just came (BrE)
communication between 2 or more groups that do not have a
8. let`s not don`t let us
language in common; it's not the native language of any speech
9. help + inf help + to inf
community; it's learned as a second language; may be built from
10.August 2nd 2nd August
words, sounds, or body language from multiple other language;
11. in AmE `will` almost never used
have low prestige with respect to other language; very simplified
will shall
language: grammar very simple, no inflections, no ending; it
12. You have a car, haven`t you? Ä…ð BrE
started in China, then was transported to Africa and America
You have a car, don`t you? Ä…ð AmE
Creole- a mixture of various languages; consists of words inherited
13. in the summer in supper
from the parent lang.; can be regarded as degenerate variants or
in the hospital in hospital
dialects of their parent lang.
14. - in BrE indefinite pronoun `one` is repeated in co-reference
- Lingua Franca was used when an Indian sailor came to Africa and
where AmE uses `he`
spoke to Arabs
15. no shift of tenses in Reported Speech
- Pidgin: the Atlantic group (Caribbean creoles); no native speakers
he said he came yesterday (AmE)
Creoles: the Pacific group (islands of the Indian origin); native
he said he had come yesterday (BrE)
speakers
- there are no longer pidgins, there are creoles
Linguistic features:
- features of creoles and pidgins: simplification of grammar, some
strange structures instead of cases, special use of pronouns, - spelling
- gram mar
spelling closer to pronunciation
- lexicon
Pronunciation and Standard English
- all the regional and national variants, that approximate to the - accent
Structural features:
status of standard, are remarkable primarily in the trivial extent to
which even the most firmly established, BrE and AmE, differ from - discourse features
- layout (paragraphs, stanzas, letter)
each other in vocabulary, grammar and spelling.
Extra linguistic features:
- however, pronunciation distinguishes one national standard from
another most immediately and completely, and links in a most - cultural info
obvious way the national standards to the regional varieties - historical info
- uIn BrE, `Received Pronunciation` (RP) comes close to enjoying - names
Variety of English:
the status of  standard
1. common core of English
Varieties according to subject matter
2. classification
- varieties involved in a discourse are sometimes referred to as
- regional dialects
`registers` and `jargons`
- the speaker has the repertoire of varieties and habitually - educational (standard/non standard) & social status (AmE, BrE,
AusE, SAfrE, WAfrE)
switches to the appropriate one as occasion arises
BrE - StBrE & non-standard Br Englishes; StBrE - standard
- the use of a specific variety of one class frequently presupposes
pronunciation & non-standard pronunciation
the use of a specific variety of another
- a register is a variety of a language used for a particular purpose - subject matter (register & jargons)
- attitude: when we use language we have such one about the
or in a particular social setting
speaker, writer, the subject and the list (very colloquial, very formal)
- jargon is terminology which is especially defined in relationship
- medium: we have such two in English: langue (an abstract way of
to a specific activity, profession, group, or event
thinking) ad parole (is what we use) (spoken English, written English)
Varieties according to medium
- interference: certain influence of sb`s native language upon the
- we have to varieties: spoken and written
other language that sb uses
- the use of a written medium normally presumes the absence of
English as a Native language;
the person to whom the piece of language is addressed; it imposes
English as 2nd language;
the necessity of a greater explicitness: the careful and precise
English as FL (foreign language)
completion of a sentence, rather than the odd word, supported by
General American pronunciation
gesture, and terminating when the speaker is assured by word or
- American were moving so they were mixing.
look that his hearer has understood
- the devices we use to transmit language by speech e.g. stress, - In the south (Texas) there is another accent which they keep
because they stayed in one place. People were moving from villages
rhythm, intonation, tempo, are impossible to represent in a
to big cities.
written text. The writer has often to reformulate his sentences if
he is to convey fully and successfully what he wants to express - People not moving from York to Yorkshire keep their accent.
American borrowed many words from Dutch (spooky, cookies, boss).
within the orthographic system
- They also met French who lived in Louisiana (bureau, prairie, cent).
Varieties according to attitude
Spanish lived in the South. Germans lives in Pennsylvania (Anglo-
- they are often called `stylistic`
German mixture).
- we distinguishes two styles: formal and informal
- it`s the choice of linguistic form that proceeds from our attitude - New Amsterdam  New York.
to the hearer (or reader), to the subject matter, or to the purpose - Indian words: tomahawk, squaw, wigwam
- new species of plants, animals (robin, creek, corn)
of our communication
- 90% of people came from British Isles so they spoke English
Varieties according to interference
- it refers to the trace left by someone`s native language upon the - 10% of people spoke other languages (French, Spanish)
foreign language he has acquired e.g. the Frenchman who says: `I - John Adams suggested creating an American academy which could
be an institution for controlling the new language (after the country
am here since Friday` is imposing a French grammatical usage on
turned to industry)
English
- some interference varieties are so widespread and of such long - Noah Webster: a lawyer educated in Yale; wrote a number of books
on AmE language and he is known for making Standard AmE;
standing that they may be thought stable and adequate enough to
American English started to be more and more different;  The
be regarded as varieties of English in their own right
American Spelling Book ; he published the first good dictionary:  The
After the World War I we saw the influence of American culture
American Dictionary of the English Language : a coursebook used in
upon the British culture
American schools to teach children reading and writing, he shows
- music: jazz
differences in American spelling (AmE:BrE; color-colour, center-
- Hollywood: American actors speaking American accent
centre, jail-gad, ax-axe); he divided multisyllabic words into syllables
- American literature: Hemingway, Fitzgerald, Faulkner
and children kept repeating and held all the syllables
- we have more and more American linguists: H.L. Mencken  a
journalist who wrote the 1st description of  the American - emigrants brought other words: spaghetti, pasta
- then the language moves to the West
Language
- American films in cinemas (cinema that people from Europe could
- American vocabulary replacing the British one
hear); American English as the world language (music, literature,
BrE AmE
films)
wireless radio
vacuum cleaner hoove -songs played in AmE
I think I guess - email, truck  AmE
One lexeme has different meanings: Black English Vernacular
BrE AmE - most widely known in the South
bill (banknot, rachunek) check - now it is social (it used to be racial  English used by black people)
note bill - they had to learn a common language on plantations
vest undershit - simplified English (grammar, vocabulary, pronunciation)
underground, tube subway - blues, jazz, music
it`s five past twelve it`s five after twelve - now we have farmer and educated people so it`s no longer
it`s five to twelve it`s five of twelve connected with race
in front of / behind in back of
from Monday to Friday Monday through Friday
I live in High Street I live in Main Street
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