A Case for Infrastructure
1
Renewal with
Accountability
1.1 INTRODUCTION
The main purpose of this book is to intro uce the IPQMS (Integrate Plan-
ning an Quality Management System) an relate case histories that rep-
resent autopsies or postmortems of projects. Experience shows that lessons
learne from past costly mistakes an isasters are invaluable in achieving
uality projects on time an on bu get.1,2 This is the first book to show how
to prepare gui elines an checklists for new programs or projects. The 20-
year stu y emonstrate that the IPQMS can be a apte to programs an
projects in ifferent sectors. It can also be a apte to the growing tren for
esign-construction projects. The use of this system will be applie to
rebuil ing America s infrastructure (Chapter 10).
The economic an social well-being of a nation are irectly relate to
the uality of its infrastructure an environment. The emise of past civili-
zations  Egyptian, Roman, Inca, an others  accelerate when they
stoppe maintaining an improving their public works. Unfortunately, the
U.S. is now guilty of ignoring the ina e uacy of its infrastructure. In ee ,
this is happening espite the efforts of the Rebuil America Coalition, which
was establishe in 1987.3
1.2 OUR DETERIORATING INFRASTRUCTURE
America is at a crossroa s in its battle to maintain economic strength an
uality of life. Both are jeopar ize by the nation s apathy towar repairing
an expan ing our existing national infrastructure, an cleaning up the envi-
ronment. Infrastructure covers highways, bri ges, airports, water supply
systems, wastewater treatment plants, soli waste isposal facilities, an
public schools. It inclu es the nee to provi e clean air an water, an control
isease. Thus, it is a basic nee to sustain an further economic an social
growth in all nations.
© 1999 CRC Press LLC
It is estimate that 60 percent of the nation s highways nee work, ranging
from repaving to major structural rehabilitation. Accor ing to the Fe eral
Highway A ministration4, Ä…35 percent of the 575,000 highway bri ges in
the U.S. are structurally eficient or functionally obsolete. Some cities have
water-main leaks that lose up to 30 percent of their water supply every ay.
Such wi esprea ecline threatens to isable entire systems ma e unstable
by elaye maintenance an stop-gap repairs. Conservatively, the loss of
man hours an fuel because of etours an traffic congestion costs both
in ustry an the public sector over $30 billion each year, an the cost is
increasing.3
In a ition, nearly 31 percent of America s public schools were built
before Worl War II. Thus, about a thir of the country s 42 million school-
chil ren are trying to prepare for a ult life in schools that lack proper heat,
ventilation, an bathroom facilities.
Directly relate to public health is the on-going pollution of our nation s
lakes, rivers, streams, an bays. This is compoun e by outbreaks of bacteria
in municipal rinking water supply systems, such as the one that ma e
400,000 people sick in Milwaukee in 1993.3
Though much progress has been ma e since the Clean Water Act of 1972,
the task re uires constant attention. Much remains to be one. A profile of
U.S. water resources inclu es the following:3
" More than 3.5 million miles of rivers an streams
" 62,000 s uare miles of lakes, pon s, an reservoirs
" 5,300 miles of Great Lakes shoreline
" 37,000 s uare miles of estuaries
As of 1992, states reporte the following:
" 8 percent of rivers, 43 percent of lakes, an 13 percent of estuaries
were contaminate with toxic chemicals
" Of the assesse rivers, 38 percent are pollute to the point where
they fail to meet esignate uses
" 44 percent of lakes, pon s, an reservoirs fail to meet esignate
uses
" 97 percent of the Great Lakes shoreline miles fail to meet esig-
nate uses
© 1999 CRC Press LLC
In a ition to the foregoing, there is the problem of hazar ous waste
which impacts public health in all 50 states. The number of toxic waste sites
has increase espite the efforts of the Environmental Protection Agency s
Superfun Program. Public health problems were foun to be worse with
the official exposure of the nuclear weaponry research in 1992  thousan s
of contaminate sites in 13 states.5,6 The nuclear weaponry resulte from
secret bomb factories an represents a total collapse of ethics an account-
ability in our government an the efense contractors.
The foregoing infrastructure an relate environmental problems are
compoun e by the serious problems in the U.S. construction in ustry. Our
construction in ustry is one of the nation s largest single in ustries, an ,
unfortunately, it is also the most fragmente an least progressive.
Without continuous investment in infrastructure, a mo ern economy fails
to grow. Our economic competitors are keenly aware of this. All of the major
in ustrialize countries invest a higher percentage of gross omestic pro uct
in public works than the U.S. (Japan lea s all of the G-7 countries. In 1992,
its infrastructure investment was roughly triple that of the U.S. It also lea s
in pro uctivity growth, about triple the rate of our country.) Rhetoric about
laying the foun ation for a better America rings hollow when we are last on
the list of countries investing in their own economic future.
Infrastructure re uires continuous attention. Fe eral, state, an local gov-
ernments, un er pressure to cut bu gets, often elay maintenance an repair.
This, of course, is not economical at all, but the most expensive form of
un erinvestment. Instea of leaving behin more than we foun , our legacy
to our chil ren will be to break the unspoken promise of a better life, to pass
on the ebts we i n t pay an a iminishe uality of life. It s not too late
to make goo on that promise, but as a nation we must act now. The necessary
action must ensure optimization of win ling resources to provi e infrastruc-
ture rebuil ing that is cost effective an high uality. This will re uire
accountability! This will re uire the use of an integrate planning an uality
management system such as the IPQMS.
1.3 STATUS OF THE ENVIRONMENT
Before the 1970s, few people worrie about hazar ous waste as long as they
were not affecte by the harmful by-pro ucts. The first national concerns on
the angers to life resulting from contamination of the environment were
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hig hlig hte with the passag e of the National Environmental Policy Act
(NEPA) in 1969. NEPA create the Environmental Protection Agency (EPA)
in 1970 with a man ate to safeguar the nation s environment. Section 102
of NEPA outline the specific re uirements that any propose action, such
as new programs or projects, woul have to meet in terms elineating the
environmental impact an provi ing for public comment.
Unfortunately, in the past, no provisions were ma e for umping of
hazar ous wastes. This severe problem was compoun e by two facts: (1)
the U.S. military is the nation s largest polluter an its activities have been
covere up by its classifie (secret) status, an (2) engineers an scientists
foun that the EPA-accepte metho of containing most waste materials in
the 1970s was flawe . Despite special linings an barriers to prevent the
waste from seeping, leaks occurre after a few years of  containment . These
leaks seepe into the water supplies of communities an wil life habitats.
The nation was shocke in the 1970s when the story of Love Canal in
upstate New York hit the me ia. Dumping starte in the 1920s an acceler-
ate after Hooker Chemical Company purchase the property in the 1940s.
Engineers at the Hooker Chemical Company plant in California a vise their
superiors that the company was creating a serious public health problem by
violating pollution limits an umping toxic wastes. The Love Canal trage y
erupte a few years later when construction of a new school broke the clay
seals that ha hel the chemicals insi e. The highly toxic chemicals seepe
through the soil towar the school an hun re s of homes surroun ing the
canal. Over 400 ifferent chemicals were eventually i entifie , with some
known to cause birth efects an cancer. Love Canal was foun to be the
 tip of the iceberg  one of thousan s of hazar ous waste sites across the
country.
From an environmental stan point, Love Canal was not an isolate event.
By 1978 the public ha alrea y witnesse ozens of environmental an
public health isasters: a fire on the surface of the Cuyahoga River in Ohio,
an enormous oil spill in Santa Barbara, the Kepone poisoning of the wells
of Hopewell, Virginia, the ina vertent mixture of cancer-causing fire retar-
ant with cattle fee in Michigan, the 17,000* containers of hazar ous
chemicals foun in the  Valley of the Drums near Louisville, the release
* This figure was foun to be closer to 100,000 rums which ha been umpe illegally at a farm
an left to rot. The hazar ous waste contents contaminate the soil an a local creek.
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of a ioxin clou over Seveso, Italy, an a massive cluster of birth efects
among infants in a Woburn, Massachusetts neighborhoo .
There are many forms of hazar ous wastes, pro uce by in ustries such
as manufacturers of chemicals, paints, petroleum pro ucts, an electrical
e uipment. In a ition, the U.S. military an its contractors are major pro-
ucers of toxic waste from nuclear weaponry research an evelopment. In
fact, all military installations have contaminate the environment with no
regar for public health an safety.
The fe eral government has i entifie approximately 450 substances as
hazar ous to public health an the environment. For example, ioxin is one
of the most toxic substances known. It covers a class of 75 chlorine-relate
compoun s which are waste by-pro ucts from the manufacturing of chem-
icals an paper pro ucts. These toxic materials have been umpe in lan fills
an waterways, en ing up in rinking water supply systems an foo sys-
tems, inclu ing fish. Other chemicals that threaten health an the environ-
ment inclu e polychlorinate biphenyls (PCBs). PCBs have been use to
make paint, plastics, a hesives, an printing ink. They can cause cancer,
birth efects, an skin iseases. Mercury is another in ustrial waste by-
pro uct that is poisonous  an yet has foun its way into the foo system
from waterways.
In a ition to the foregoing, there are many problems resulting from
nuclear waste, inclu ing power plants an nuclear weaponry research an
evelopment. The latter is a  time bomb because of the secret status of the
research uring the Col War era, 1947 1992. There are untol thousan s
of sites on military bases an installations where tens of billions of gallons
of toxic an ra ioactive wastes have been umpe into porous soil.
The iscovery of Love Canal an scores of other angerous chemical
waste sites ignite fear an outrage across the country in the late 1970s.
Galvanize into action  largely to remove imme iate threats in commu-
nities such as Love Canal, New York  Congress in 1980 enacte the
Comprehensive Environmental Response, Compensation an Liability Act
(CERCLA), which uickly became known as Superfun . The law provi e
$1.6 billion in cleanup fun s an gave the EPA authority to force parties
responsible for the contamination to con uct the cleanups or repay the fe eral
government for its cleanup costs.
Superfun  s implementation has attracte almost continual criticism
since its inception. In its first years, congressional investigations into alle-
gations of mismanagement an political manipulation of the program le to
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the resignation of EPA s a ministrator an the incarceration of the Superfun
program s top official. In a ition, the EPA Superfun was place on the
government s list of high-risk programs in 1992.7 Seventeen fe eral programs
were so rate because of their vulnerability to waste, frau , abuse, an
mismanagement. Meanwhile, the number of highly toxic sites ha grown to
over 1300 in 1994, after spen ing over $14 billion. The EPA Superfun
Programs 1, 2, an 3 (1980-1995) are iscusse as an IPQMS postmortem
in Chapter 8.
In a ition to the in ustrial umping of hazar ous wastes into the envi-
ronment for many years, we now fin that there are thousan s of sites at
military bases an installations contaminate by nuclear wastes from the
Col War era (1947 1992) research an evelopment of nuclear bombs an
weaponry.5,6
Evi ence of the on-going contamination is presente in the next section
on the bomb factories. A itional evi ence is ocumente in the IPQMS
postmortems of the operation of the Trans-Alaska Pipeline System (Chapter
6), the EPA Superfun Programs 1 to 3 (Chapter 8), an the Hanfor Nuclear
Reservation (Chapter 9).
1.4 NUCLEAR WASTE CONTAMINATION
The age of nuclear energy, now over 50 years ol , has given the worl a
great source of energy for both goo an evil. On the one han , it has helpe
to provi e the electric power that oes so much to make our lives more
pro uctive an enjoyable. On the other han , it has terrorize us with the
awful weapons it has create an the amages to public health an the
environment.
Ranking high among its most frightening aspects are the waste materials
that result from the pro uction of nuclear energy an nuclear weaponry.
Nuclear wastes loom as a anger to life an the environment because they
are ra ioactive, emitting a ra iation that can be ea ly. A ing to their
angers is the fact that many re uire up to an astonishing 10,000 years before
their ra iation win les to the point where they are no longer able to harm.
The pro uction of nuclear power an nuclear weaponry generates ra io-
active waste pro ucts, otherwise known as ra wastes. If not properly store ,
these wastes ren er our soil, air, an water supply vulnerable to ra ioactive
contamination. The only secure means of isposal is shiel ing. Nuclear waste
© 1999 CRC Press LLC
nee s to be store far beyon human reach, where it can ecay for the
hun re s, even thousan s, of years necessary for it to become harmless.
Unfortunately, a serious problem of ra ioactive contamination of both
the workplace an the environment emerge in the late 1980s. This was the
exposure of the  Col War era secret testing of human reaction to exposure
to ra iation an the poisoning of millions of people working in or living
near nuclear weapons facilities. It began in 1947 an was kept secret for
over 40 years. Meanwhile, nuclear waste isposal was taking place at 117
weapons factories, 16 principal an over 100 secon ary, in 13 states. Contract
management initially was the responsibility of the Atomic Energy Commis-
sion (AEC), one of the pre ecessors to the Department of Energy (DOE).
DOE now has the responsibility for the huge task of cleaning up these sites.8
The bomb factories highlight the absolute isregar for public health,
worker safety, human ignity, an the environment. In ee , they represent
a total collapse of ethics an accountability in our government an the
efense contractors as evi ence by their ignoring the professional engineers,
scientists, an managers who were trying to  blow the whistle .9 The me ia
first ma e a large-scale exposure of the nuclear weaponry research an
evelopment at the 16 major sites in late 1988. Whistleblowers were begin-
ning to expose the innumerable health, safety, security, an other violations
at all the bomb factory sites in 1986. Plant workers, their families, an their
communities have been knowingly expose to unacceptable levels of ra io-
active emissions an wastes since 1947. However, it took the Chernobyl
nuclear plant isaster of 1986 in Russia to trigger U.S. me ia to listen to the
whistleblowers.
The bomb factories represent an unfortunate symbol of collusion between
the military an efense contractors that Presi ent Eisenhower warne the
nation about in his farewell speech, January 1961. He was eeply concerne
about the secret power of a military-in ustrial complex, one that woul result
in excessive eception, corruption, an frau . Unfortunately, his a vice was
not followe , an the collusion between the fe eral government an big
business, especially efense contractors an the oil in ustry, resulte in
complete isregar for laws an regulations esigne to protect public health
an safety an the environment. The whistleblowers, or ethical resisters, are
a relatively new group who are concerne about the lack of accountability
in government an in ustry to ay.
The whistleblowers have been harasse , both mentally an sexually, by
their superiors. They have also been rebuke by the fe eral government,
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inclu ing the Nuclear Regulatory Commission an members of Congress.
They now have an ally in the Government Accountability Project (GAP), a
nonprofit, public interest organization base in Washington, D.C.9,10 GAP
provi es legal an a vocacy assistance to concerne citizens who witness
angerous, illegal or environmentally unsoun practices in their workplaces
an communities an choose to  blow the whistle . Since its foun ing in
1977, GAP has helpe hun re s of public an private employees an grass-
roots organizations expose threats to public health an safety an the envi-
ronment.
The nuclear weaponry sites have contaminate billions of gallons of
water an millions of tons of soil with wastes from the bomb buil ing plants.
Estimate costs of cleanup range from $250 to $300 billion over the next
20 to 30 years.6,11 Goo man an Ignacio show how a new metho ology they
evelope with an international team, the Integrate Planning an Quality
Management System (IPQMS), can be use to clean up these sites efficiently.
The IPQMS, when properly intro uce an implemente , results in account-
ability, cost effectiveness, an uality.
The postmortem shows that waste, frau , an mismanagement in the
cleanup of the Hanfor Nuclear Reservation site are rampant. Over $7.5
billion were spent between 1991 an 1996, with $2.5 billion lost because of
no accountability. Meanwhile, the nuclear contamination continues to move
into the groun water which flows into the Columbia River. Yet, the whistle-
blowers continue to be ignore by Westinghouse Hanfor an the DOE.12
1.5 CONTAMINATION OF MILITARY BASES
In a ition to the bomb factory sites, there are over 9700 military installations
an former efense properties in all 50 states. In 1988, the Department of
Defense (DoD) began to examine ways to achieve savings by realigning an
closing military bases that were costly to operate an no longer nee e to
meet changing re uirements. In December of that year, the Commission on
Base Realignment an Closure (BRAC 88) recommen e that 86 military
installations be close an 59 others be partially close , expan e , or re uce
by the relocation of military units.13
Because the commission was concerne primarily with ensuring that
military re uirements be met, such factors as the environmental impact of
closing bases receive less emphasis in its eliberations. The commission
conclu e , for instance, that it i not nee to consi er the cost of cleaning
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up hazar ous wastes because, un er current law, the government woul have
to clean up the properties in any event. Conse uently, in consi ering which
bases to close, the commission ha only preliminary estimates of the extent
an nature of environmental contamination.
Until legislation governing the han ling an isposal of hazar ous waste
took effect uring the past eca e, re uirements for managing the isposal
of waste on military bases were not nearly as stringent as they are to ay.
Conse uently, environmental contamination is wi esprea , in some cases
constituting a significant potential threat to public health an safety.
On the bases sche ule for BRAC 88 closings, a wi e variety of sources
of pollution exists: lan fills, fuel an paint umps, burie munitions, PCB
transformers, asbestos, ra on, groun water contamination, an un ergroun
storage tanks that have evelope leaks. Cleaning up burie munitions an
groun water contamination are among the most ifficult, time consuming,
an costly of these problems. Among the BRAC 88 bases, DoD ha i entifie
seven with burie munitions an at least 10 instances of groun water con-
tamination. The latter may also exist at numerous a itional sites  for
example, lan fills an un ergroun storage tanks  but final eterminations
have not yet been ma e. Other types of cleanup, such as removing PCB
transformers, can be relatively simple an re uire only a short time to
complete.13
The Congressional Bu get Office (CBO) estimate there might be over
20,000 contaminate sites on the 9700 military installations in 1994. Again,
it is emphasize that these sites are in a ition to the Col War era nuclear
weaponry research an evelopment sites, such as the Hanfor Nuclear
Reservation. A small number of these sites have been place on the EPA
Superfun National Priority List (NPL).
1.6 CONSTRUCTION INDUSTRY ISSUES
The construction in ustry is the nation s secon largest in ustry (behin
health care) an also the most fragmente an among the least progressive.
In recent years it has been re uire to buil facilities that are more an more
complex, utilizing metho s that are largely unchange . At the same time,
there has been a stea y erosion in uality an pro uctivity of the in ustry.
This negative impact on the cost of every office buil ing, water supply
system, waste isposal system, or power plant that is built affects the price
that must be charge for the services provi e by those facilities.
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One major reason that construction is comparatively inefficient is in its
fragmentation an conse uent lack of teamwork. It is a $600 billion a year
activity (1995) involving close to one million contractors, over 70 national
contractor associations,* more than 10,000 local an national labor organi-
zations, an over 6 million people, inclu ing professionals an skille an
semiskille workers. Despite the capabilities of the larger an more progres-
sive contractors, an espite the sophistication of many clients for construc-
tion, too much of the in ustry remains mire in the past. Construction
effectiveness starts with the owners, an they, along with g overnmental
regulators of the construction in ustry, are part of the restraint. An a versarial
relationship often exists, bree ing suspicion an lack of cooperation among
key participants.
In parallel with ecreasing construction efficiency, construction s share
of gross national pro uct** has been eclining. Historically, it has run about
10 percent of GNP, but since 1975 that share has roppe several percent.
Currently, it is about 8 percent of GNP. Keys to upgra ing the in ustry are
cooperation an communication between an among the principal parties 
owners, planners, esigners, an contractors. There is a great nee for orga-
nize knowle ge an exchange of information. Meaningful research must
involve realistic ata gathere from current practice. In contrast to most areas
of engineering, it is ifficult to mo el projects in a laboratory. Data are
scattere among thousan s of projects, involving a multitu e of owners,
contractors, an other parties.
Construction has long been recognize as a fertile fiel for research an
significant aca emic an practical contributions. Only recently, however, has
a e uate attention been given to the nee s for fun s to support continuing
stu ies in the fiel . The Business Roun table complete a multi-million
ollar stu y in 1982 which i entifie many research nee s.14 The Presi ent s
Private Sector Survey on Cost Control (Grace Commission) i entifie waste
an mismanagement in public works projects as part of its comprehensive
stu y of the fe eral government in 1982 an 1983.15 The East-West Center
con ucte autopsies on 30 projects in nine countries from 1977 to 1982 to
* The largest is the Associate General Contractors of America (AGC), with 32,500 member firms
an 102 chapters nationwi e.
** Gross National Pro uct (GNP) is the sum of the country s total output of goo s an services.
GNP use here is base on current ollars. GNP in 1995 was Ä…$7.35 trillion.
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better un erstan why projects fail (run over sche ule or bu get, or collapse),
an how to improve pro uctivity an uality.1
The conclusions rawn from the various stu ies of the construction
in ustry, inclu ing autopsies or postmortems of projects, clearly emonstrate
a common problem  fragmentation. Thus, the nee for integrating plan-
ning, esign, construction, an management has been reinforce . This will
re uire teamwork, exchange of information, an establishing a ata base to
provi e insights an lessons from past mistakes. Teamwork must inclu e the
principal parties involve in the in ustry: owner, esign professional, an
contractor.
1.7 TWO MAJOR PROGRAMS ADDRESSING THE
ISSUES
1.7.1 THE CONSTRUCTION INDUSTRY INSTITUTE (CII)
The Business Roun table stu y resulte in the creation of a national forum
calle the Construction In ustry Institute (CII). The CII was establishe at
the University of Texas in Austin in 1983. It is supporte by large in ustrial
firms an construction companies, inclu ing esign-buil firms.
The CII is an innovative concept for research an evelopment in con-
struction. It is inten e to provi e a resource to help bring together the
fragmente in ustry in areas of common problems an nee s. It allows
owners, esigners, contractors, universities, an other organizations involve
in construction to cooperate in areas of common concerns an interests.16
The initial objectives of the institute were:
" To evelop into a principal national forum for issues relate to the
cost effectiveness of the construction in ustry.
" To bring together experience management, technical personnel,
an their companies who share a broa view of the construction
in ustry, an are willing to participate an pool their expertise to
improve it.
" To i entify important issues which impact the cost effectiveness of
the construction in ustry, support an irect research, prepare an
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offer recommen ations, an efine the measurable results expecte
from implementation.
" To isseminate both cre ible information of value an state-of-the-
art knowle ge to the construction in ustry through appropriate
vehicles of communication an e ucation.
" To establish an maintain appropriate liaison with other organiza-
tions active on construction in ustry issues of mutual interest.
Sustaining membership in the CII is open to companies in the U.S. that
have a significant involvement in the U.S. construction in ustry as a con-
struction user, constructor, or engineer. Sustaining membership in the CII
re uires an annual membership fee of $36,000 plus a commitment to support
the activities of the CII through participation in the Boar of A visors an
the A visory Committees. The membership objective is to have no less than
40 percent representation by either the construction users or the contrac-
tors/engineers group. There were approximately 100 members in 1996.
The CII has ma e much progess in construction pro uctivity in large
projects involving the charter members. Unfortunately, there has been little
or no impact on the majority of construction projects in the U.S. The CII
has ma e significant contributions to e ucation an practice through an
extensive series of research reports an vi eo tapes in areas of contracts,
implementation, materials, management, partnering, an uality of manage-
ment. Again, the au ience has been limite to primarily the charter members,
who represent a small percentage of the overall in ustry.
1.7.2 THE AMERICAN SOCIETY OF CIVIL ENGINEERS (ASCE)
The American Society of Civil Engineers (ASCE) convene a series of
meetings with lea ers of the esign an construction in ustry in 1983 1985
to iscuss efforts to achieve uality in the constructe project. The principal
recommen ation was that ASCE shoul evelop an publish  a comprehen-
sive an authoritative gui e on uality in esign an construction that woul
clearly efine roles an responsibilities of the participants in the process.
ASCE recruite approximately 40 authors an 70 reviewers to pro uce
Volume 1 of a manual title Quality in the Constructed Project: A Guide for
Owners, Designers and Constructors.17
The manual encourages teamwork among the principal parties of owner,
esign professional, an constructor. Unfortunately, there is lack of an inte-
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grative force in the manual to ensure the necessary teamwork is achieve .
Another major gap is lack of attention to the importance of feasibility stu ies
to the esign an construction phases. Thus, the barriers in esign an
construction that account for fragmentation still exist.
In 1987, members of ASCE tackle the uestion  What will the probable
state of civil engineering be in the 21st century? ASCE conclu e that
 meeting the challenges of the civil engineering profession in the 21st century
will re uire imaginative an creative research, some of it in totally new
fiel s. The members recommen e a  coor inate national research strat-
egy..., which at the time was nonexistent, an re ueste that ASCE
 ... evelop an execute a program of basic an applie stu ies, an emon-
stration projects.
In May 1988, the ASCE Task Committee on Implementation of a Civil
Engineering Research Foun ation (CERF) reporte on its activities to the
ASCE Boar of Direction, which inclu e the establishment of the corporate
entity now known as CERF an the Committee s recommen ations lea ing
to the start-up of the Foun ation in 1989.
The mission of CERF is to unify the civil engineering profession through
research an innovation. It receive basic support from ASCE, with major
support from cooperating organizations through a partnership effort in joint
research projects. Collaboration to ate has been significant with fe eral
epartments an agencies. For example, the U.S. Environmental Protection
Agency (EPA) is now collaborating with CERF to evaluate a broa range of
new environmental technologies for pollution avoi ance an reme ia-
tion/restoration.
Another example is the Highway Innovative Technology Evaluation Cen-
ter (HITEC). HITEC was establishe in 1993 in conjunction with the Fe eral
Highway A ministration to help move highway innovation into practice
more uickly.
These joint efforts are inten e to evaluate new technologies an then
move them into practice. However, CERF oes not a ress issues of account-
ability, cost effectiveness, an uality.
In summary, the overall picture of the status of the nation s infrastructure
an environment is not goo . Many circumstances have converge to create
current infrastructure problems. The most serious are:
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" The high cost of construction because of fragmentation of the
in ustry, which results in lack of teamwork an accountability.
" Shifting responsibilities: the Reagan a ministration shifte infra-
structure maintenance an repair from fe eral to state bu gets. In
many cases, state an local treasuries were unable to foot the bill.
In a ition, the Highway an Airport Trust Fun s are broke.18
" Deferre maintenance: electe officials, face with the choice of
erecting new structures or systems, or repairing ol ones, ten to
leave the repairs to their successors. So o their successors, leaving
bigger an bigger problems.
" Fun ing allocations: owing to the way fe eral fun s have been
istribute , many states an municipalities have foun it cheaper
to  buil new than  fix ol . Highway fun s, for example, are
ma e available for construction, not earmarke for repairs.
" Increase loa ings: structures built to take specific loa s now must
take much more, with trucks having ouble an even triple in
weight.
" Timing: the numerous public works projects of 40 to 50 years ago
are  coming ue, revealing any mistakes embe e in their con-
struction (such as the bri ges an overpasses in the California
earth uakes of 1971, 1989, an 1993).
Rebuil America, a broa -base coalition of organizations concerne
with a e uate infrastructure investment, was establishe in 1987.3 It lobbies
for the release of fe eral trust fun s for nee e transportation an public
buil ing improvements, inclu ing school buil ings. Unfortunately, they o
not un erstan that all the Fe eral Trust Fun s are broke. Rebuil America
inclu es city, county, state, an national officials, as well as other public
lea ers whose job it is to maintain, inspect, an plan for the buil ing an
rebuil ing of our public facilities. These professionals are supporte by
engineers, buil ers, financiers, contractors, an architects concerne about
the ire national conse uences of substan ar infrastructure.
The rise an fall of a civilization ultimately is linke to its ability to fee
an shelter its people an to efen itself. These capabilities epen on the
vitality of its infrastructure  the un erlying, nearly imperceptible foun a-
tion of a society s wealth an uality of life. A civilization that stops investing
© 1999 CRC Press LLC
in its infrastructure takes the first steps towar ecline. As the infrastructure
ecays, society slowly becomes paralyze by its inability to transport people
an foo , provi e clean air an water, control isease, an con uct com-
merce.
In the last century, the U.S. investe heavily in its infrastructure  from
canals to fiber optic systems, from fresh water to interstate highways an
rapi mass transit systems. But this infrastructure now is eteriorating ue
to excessive eman , misuse, an neglect. The fragility of these systems an
the staggering losses their failure will incur was graphically illustrate by
the Chicago floo in April 1992, Hurricane An rew in August 1992, an a
minor telephone outage in New York in September 1991 that shut own
three major airports. Several stu ies in icate that the current ecline in U.S.
pro uctivity an its increasing eficit are partly the result of a eteriorating,
ina e uate infrastructure.19
The Rebuil America Coalition re uires assistance to awaken Congress
an the White House to the vital nee for their actions. The National Science
Foun ation (NSF) will sharpen the focus on this urgency by establishing a
national Institute for Civil Infrastructure Systems (ICIS) in late 1997.20
Unfortunately, neither the Rebuil America Coalition nor the NSF initiative
a resses the construction in ustry issues. The IPQMS, when properly intro-
uce an implemente , woul result in the necessary teamwork essential
for success.
1.8 THE NEED TO TEACH TEAMWORK
To be successful, rebuil ing America s infrastructure an cleaning up the
environment must be un ertaken on a team basis. Of e ual importance, this
task must inclu e provision for accountability. Experience with over 20 years
stu ying bu get overruns an other costly mistakes in both public an private
projects points to common problems of fragmentation in planning, esign,
an implementation. To illustrate these problems, consi er the following
cases:
" The Trans-Alaska Pipeline System (TAPS) Part One (1968 1977)
Bu get overrun from $900 million to $8 billion.
Constant esign changes uring construction.
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$1.5 billion lost to waste, frau , an mismanagement.
Basic problems relate to lack of a e uate feasibility stu ies.
" TAPS Part Two: Operation (1978 1996)
Constant violation of fe eral an state laws regar ing worker
health an safety an polluting the environment.
Sexual an mental harassment of whistleblowers by manage-
ment.
The largest oil spill in U.S. history, compoun e by lack of a vi-
able response system.
" State of Washington Five Nuclear Power Plants (1968 1992)
Original estimate of $5.7 billion balloone to over $24 billion in
1984, an growing.
State efaulte on $2.25 billion in municipal bon s in 1982 ue
to waste, frau , an mismanagement.
Two power plants cancele in 1982 an two were  shelve  after
construction was more than 65 percent complete .
Escalation of construction costs in one state causing an economic
epression in neighboring states.
" Washington, D.C. Metro System (1968 1995)
Original estimates of $1 billion excee e $7 billion in 1995
with only 81 miles an 70 stations complete out of a projecte
102 miles an 83 stations; another $2.6 billion nee e .
Large bu get overruns cause by ina e uate planning regar ing
the effect of tunneling on a jacent structures an resulting litiga-
tion.
Lack of competence in the management of esign an construc-
tion.
" Environmental Protection Agency s Superfun Programs 1, 2, an
3 (1980 1995)
Only 90 toxic waste sites cleane up after 14 years an $14 bil-
lion expen e (projections estimate 300 sites woul be com-
plete ).
Lack of integration of planning, esign, an implementation.
No attempt ma e to establish a ata base after Program No. 1 in
1985.
The U.S. General Accounting Office (GAO) reports on waste,
frau , an mismanagement ignore by Congress an the White
House.
Lack of continuity in lea ership of the EPA  use of political
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appointees.
Nobo y in the entire fe eral government is accountable  this
violates the Constitution regar ing the spen ing of public mon-
ey.
" Spacecraft Challenger Disaster (January 28, 1986)
Explosion 73.213 secon s into launch, killing six astronauts an
one school teacher.
O-Ring pressure seals in the right soli rocket motor faile , per-
mitting the escape of highly pressurize rocket fuel.
The recommen e escape system for such an emergency ha
been rejecte in 1972 as too costly ($300 million).
Repeate warnings by engineers of O-ring problems (charring
an erosion) since 1979 ignore by Morton Thiokol an National
Aeronautics an Space A ministration (NASA) managers.
" Hanfor Nuclear Reservation, Richlan , WA (1950 1996)
Management operating the facility for over 40 years without re-
gar for environmental, health, or safety re uirements.
Department of Energy (DOE) an its pre ecessor agencies
knowingly expose tens of thousan s of bomb-plant workers to
con itions that resulte in injury, health problems, an eath. In
a ition, most of these workers an neighboring communities
have been expose to harmful levels of ra ioactivity.
High-level nuclear wastes umpe onto the esert floor an into
the Columbia River.
No oversight by fe eral agencies or members of Congress. In-
ee , contractors such as Westinghouse Hanfor an its pre e-
cessor, Rockwell International, are reimburse by the DOE for
legal expenses fighting the whistleblowers.
Deliberate an illegal estruction of ocuments showing waste
storage problems, leaks, an other angerous con itions.
Waste, frau , an mismanagement rampant in clean up of con-
taminate sites. Over $7 billion spent since 1991, with $2 bil-
lion lost to waste an frau .
Whistleblowers ignore by management an the U.S. govern-
ment in all of the above.
The foregoing problems can be avoi e by using the integrate planning
an uality management system (IPQMS). Chapter 2 intro uces the IPQMS.
The authors propose a 10-year program in Chapter 10 to rebuil the
infrastructure an clean up the environment. The program woul be a fe -
eral state government partnership costing $35 billion a year. It woul be
planne , esigne , an implemente in the IPQMS framework to ensure
© 1999 CRC Press LLC
accountability, cost effectiveness, an uality. The money woul come from
the $65 billion in Corporate Welfare.
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1. Goo man, Louis J. Project Planning and Management: An Integrated System
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17. American Society of Civil Engineers (ASCE). Quality in the Constructed
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© 1999 CRC Press LLC