Antropomotoryka Nr 17 - 1998
Spis treści / Contents
J. Szopa, W. Chwała, T. Ruchlewicz, Investigations on Structure of "Energetic" Motor Abilities and Validityof their Testing
J. Szopa, K. Latinek, Investigations on the Structure of Coordination Abilities
W. Mynarski, The Variability of the Inner Structure of Motor Abilities in Children and Youth
G. Juras, Z. Waśkiewicz, J. Raczek, Space Orientation-Identification, Inner Structure and Diagnosis
Z. Waśkiewicz, G. Juras, J. Raczek, The Motor Adjustment - Inner Structure and Place Among Other Coordinational Abilities
M. Bawelski, J. Cempla, A.T. Klimek, W. Kobosko, The Developmental and Training Changes in Anaerobic Capacity in Girls and Boys Aged from 12-13 Years
J. Januszewski, A Suggestion of a New Approach to a Relative Evaluation of Motor Ability
Review Papers
W. Osiński, Tendencies of Construction of the Phisical Fitness in the Conception of “Health - Related Fitness”
Investigations on Structure of "Energetic" Motor Abilities and Validity of their Testing
by Jan Szopa*, Wiesław Chwała** and Tadeusz Ruchlewicz***
The main purpose of this paper was a thorough examination of the structure of motor abilities, based on the primary - possible to define in the laboratory conditions by biomechanical methods - values characterising three basic aspects of the skeleton muscle functions: velocity of contraction, values of maximal torques and theirs endurance. It was assumed that distinguishing only these three types of abilities (strenght, velocity and endurance) narrows their area, impedes their measurement and confuses two aspects of motoricity: potential and effective.
One of the main metodological problem in research in human motoricity is the issue of testing abilities through efficiency, (fitness) which is error prone due to the difficulty or even inability to separate motor skills. It undoubtedly is one of the reasons for terminology confusion and a great unconcern in classifying particular abilities. This is why the tests were conducted with female and male students of the third year of the Academy of Physical Education in Kraków. Those who practised competetive sports were excluded from the target group. This target group, consisting of 91 women and 143 men aged 21-23, as contrasted with other youth groups, can be characterised as having: (i) fully developed motor potential, (ii) a high uniform level of abilities. Laboratory examinations were conducted in standard conditions, according to the biomemechanical principles. Motor ability tests were conducted at the track and field stadium and the sports gymnasium by the same invetigations team (during the years 1993 - 1995) specifically from the point of view of establishing "dimensions" and "factors" and the motor tests applied in the process (vide ICSPFT and EUROFIT). The whole examination convered 42 measurements charakterising:
1. strenght abilities - maximal torques of 18 main muscle groups (table 1) and sums of maximal and relative torques for extensors, flexors and all the groups, examinations were dynamometrically in connection with the computer measurement line,
2. speed abilities: parameters of a vertical jump on a tensometric board (MAP), a 50-meter sprint (speed recorder) and the velocity of strenght development in an isometric contraction total of 53 parameters,
3. endurance abilities: maximal oxygen uptake (VO2max) by the Margaria indirect method (1965), recording HReff by Sports Testers, as well as the value of the strenght decline in 40 seconds in an isometric contraction (muscle endurance of 8 muscles groups).
After the testing all the parameters were verified by correlation analysis and three-stages factor analysis to select most representative samples for a given group of abilities.
Additionaly, 13 motor fitness tests were conducted aimed at examining the irs validity in measuring above mentioned three types of abilities. They are listed in table 8.
Statistical analysis of the gathered data covered the following:
calculation of basic statistical characteristics (x,SD),
calculation of correlation matrix in all the tested groups of parameters,
two-stage factor analysis in an exploration version (EFA) and in the Ward taxonomic analysis in order to reduce the number of parameters (stage I) and to select the most representative parameters (stage II); they were selected for stage III and treated as a "golden standards"
determination of the final structure of motor abilities by determining factors (groups) of higher level (third stage of the analysis),
initial evaluation of the validity of analysed tests based on factor marker analysis and the Ward taxonomic method conducted in the final "areas" of particular abilities qualified to the third stage,
verification of the received results of tests validity by their individual confrontation with the whole "area" of abilities selected in the third stage.
Calculations were done on IBM PC using STATISTICA v.5.0., AAD, EXCEL v.7.0.
During the analysis, the following criteria were taken into consideration:
logic of the selected factor (possibility of biological interpretation),
value of factor loads,
value of diagnostic measurement.
The results were as follows:
Within the strenght abilities in the first stage, 10 factors were selected in both groups of women and men. Out of these, 16 variables in women and 18 in men were selected for the second stage. In the second stage, the number of factors declined to four, out of which to the third stage were selected the following: sum of all torques (absolute strenght), sum of all flexsors, sum of all extensors, and values of maximal and relative torques of the elbow and knee joint extensors.
In the first stage in the group of speed abilities (53 variables) as many as 15 factors were selected both in women and men. Two groups of 19 variables each were selected to the second stage, which after the analysis were translated into factors of a higher level (in women and men), out of which for the final analisys were selected the following: attainment time and value of Vmax measured during running, MAP, the attainment time of the maximal strenght, maximal values of derivative strenght in relation to time for elbow and knee joints.
Out of endurance abilities in the first stage, four factors were selected in both sexes. Five variables were selected to the second stage which constituted two groups of two factors. To the third stage were selected the parameters of resistance to tiredness of the elbow and knee joint extensors, and VO2max - shown by the value of the effort HR. The third stage was treated as the setting of the final structure of motor abilities taking into consideration - besides analysis results - the posibility of biological interpretations of selected abilities and selection (number) of parameters. Results of both analysis of strenght abilities (table 2, 3; fig 1,2) show occurrence of four factors (groups): absolute strenght (52-53% of common variance), local strenght of upper and lower extremities (9-15%) and relative strenght (12-17%). Because the absolute and relative strenght are linked arithmetically and local strenght is dependent on the number of variables introduced to the analysis - thus the occurrence of, at least, 2 factor of static strenght: general strenght (absolute and relative) and local strenght of particular groups of extremity muscles (greater independence of lower extremities in men, and of upper extremities in women)
The structure of speed abilities is less clear. Factor analysis shows the occurrence of four factors (table 4,5), however, the Ward analysis points clearly to three-element structure: besides expected factors of "MAP" (energy) and "velocity of muscle mobilisation" (co-ordination) there occurred a third, indirect factor of "ability of acceleration of running" probably resulting from the set of tests (a few parameters of speed run record). This ability results mainly from the value of MAP, what can be seen at Ward method diagrams as links of these groups in a greater distance; therefore there is a clear division into two groups of various biological substrate.
The most clear was the structure of endurance abilities (table 6,7 fig. 5,6). In both sexes and in both analyses, there occurred two factors: "aerobic capacity" and "local muscular endurance" - a factor linked with maximal anaerobic capacity (lactacid).
Due to the results of these analyses it seems indispansable to determine some definitions of motor abilities based on a clear biological base dominant, thus to separate it from the effect (a kind of motor act).
We suggest qualifying them as sets of predispositions determined by common biological backgrouns. In the field of abilities based on structural and energetic properties, at least 6 such sets should be listed. These would be possible to measure by laboratory tests verified in this paper or already recognised in sciences:
No. MOTOR ABILITIES MEASUREMENT
1. Ability to develop the global strenght groups (absolute or relative) Sum Mmax or Mrel. of great muscle
2. Ability to develop the local strenght (of lower or upper extremities) Mmax or Mrel. of extensors of lower or upper extremities
3. Ability to develop MAP (alactacid and lactacid) Wingate Anaerobic Test
4. Ability to fast muscle mobolisation Attainment time of Fmax of lower extremity extensors
5. Ability to maximal oxygen uptake VO2max- direct
6. Ability of muscular endurance Maintenance time of maximal strenght upper or lower extremities
The presented notion in this paper allows to treat abilities as "potential side" of motoricity, thus the tests of motor fitness can be treated only as indirect measurement and only under the condition that they have enough validity. It was yet another issue of this paper. The two-stage verification of 13 known tests conducted with the help of factor marker analysis (table 8,9) proved that only a few of them were valid in a satisfactory way.
These were:
in strenght abilities: "a medicine ball backward throw over the head" (global strenght), "a pull-upp" and an arm bend in a pusch-ups position (local strenght of upper extremities),
in speed abilities "a standing long jump" (MAP and muscle acceleration ability), "zig-zag run" (acceleration ability) and "300-metre run" (lactacid MAP)
in endurance abilities: "Cooper test", "Eurofit shuttle run", "1500-metre run" (for men) and "800-metre run" (for women) as a measurement tools for aerobic capacity an "a pull-upp" as a measurements of tool for the muscle endurance, although these are mainly measurements of local strenght. Other tests proved to be more complex and should be considered as less accurate.
In the light of these results we can propose to treat all the "potential side" of motority as "heath - related - fitness", but the effective ones - as a "performance related".
*Prof. dr hab., **dr, ***dr, Katedra Antropomotoryki AWF, Kraków, Al.Jana Pawła II 78
Investigations on the Structure of Coordination Abilities
by Jan Szopa* and Krzysztof Latinek**
The aim of the study was to evaluate the coordination abilities structure with a special regard to motor capabilities (velocity and accuracy of learning). Because of the impossibility of separating individual motor skills in tests examining motor capabilities, examinations were made on the group of 150 men and 100 women, students of the APhE. They were both a group of relatively (in compare to the population) uniformed motor skills and full developed motor potency abilities.
The studies comprised of basic somatic parameters, psychomotor predispositions (different tests of reaction time, eye-movement coordination, space orientation, movement frequency, kinestetic feeling and balance) as well as of basic elements of motor capabilities: velocity and accuracy of motor learning, examining by three new tests of our own construction.
The methods comprised two kinds of multidimensional statistical analysis: factor analysis and taxonomic method of Ward.
Eight separated factors (groups) of coordinational abilities were found: reaction time, eye-movement coordination, movement frequency, kinestetic feeling, balance, space orientation, velocity of learning and accuracy of learning.
All of them should be tested during studies on human motor abilities (tab. 1, 2, Fig. 1, 2).
Motor capabilities has been found to be an independent group from other coordinational abilities. In Authors opinion the main reason of this fhenomenon is the different mechanism of motor control in neuronal centres.
*Prof. dr hab., **dr, Katedra Antropomotoryki AWF, Kraków, Al.Jana Pawła II 78
The Variability of the Inner Structure of Motor Abilities in Children and Youth
by Władysław Mynarski*
The work attempted a verifycation of actual concepts related to the structure of human motor behaviour. The research material included motor ftness results of children and youth between the age of 8 and 18 in the full spectrum of energetical and informative area. Incorporating factor analysis and the taxonomic method the following abilities have been excluded in the inner structure of the motor potential: energetical of both aerobic and anaerobic character and coordinational abilities. Besides the above mentioned abilities the need to exclude speed and agility wasjustifed. The possibility ofevaluatirng particular abilitiesfor thepurpose ofphysical education was indicated.
*Dr hab., Katedra Teorii Motoryczności AWF, Katowice, ul.Mikołowska 72a, Poland
Space Orientation-Identification, Inner Structure and Diagnosis
by Grzegorz Juras*, Zbigniew Waśkiewicz**, Joachim Raczek***
The process of orientation in time and space is among the most complicated processes coordinated by the nervous system. Althought it is impossible to clearly recognize this process, trials to investigate the backgrounds are still undertaken because of its importance in human activity. They are searching deeper and deeper to describe more precisely specific coordinational abilities. In that work ability to orientate in time and space, which is stated in many theoretical concepts of coordinational area, was tried to be established.
The main aim of this study was identification of the space orientation and determination the inner stucture of that coordinational ability. On the ground of researches a trial to propose the valid methods of diagnosis was undertaken.
The research was conducted on 51 female and 58 male students (aged from 20 to 24) of the Academy of Physical Education in Katowice. Subjects were selected according to athletic and computer experience. Space orientation was dignosed using computer, laboratory and motor trials. Other specific coordinational abilities were also diagnosed.
The collected material was analysed statistically. Factor analysis was the primary statistical method used. From many variations the method based on Hotteling's main components with Tucker's modification supplemented by Varimax rotation was chosen (Weber, 1980). The factor analysis was applicated in the area of the following groups of variables: diagnosing visual aspect of space orientation (using computer programme), evaluating parameters that characterise researched ability, variables that determine diagnised coordinational abilities (models were created after reduction of the variables).
The results clearly indicate a complex structure of the visual aspect of space orientation. The following factors, which were not significantly influenced by sex, were created: speed of orientation (23.74% of common variance), distance estimation (19.68%), shape perception (16.89%), angle evaluation (11.42%) and complex orientation (9.8%). Total common variance reached 81.53%. It is justified to treat all factors (different aspects) of visual orientation as the separately, independent components of that coordination ability.
Also an analysis conducted on variables of the second model allowed to describe the complicated inner stucture of space orientation. Thus differences in results obtained in men and women it was possible to state the following structure of the researched ablilty: precission of the space evaluation (23.08% of common variance in men and 22.43% in women), speed of distance determination (19.89% and 18,71%), space differentiation (19.53% and 15.28%), rapid orientaion (10.53% and 10.51%) and space imagination (only in women - 6.01%). Total common variances resulted at 73.03% in men and 72.94% in women.
Last stage of factor analysis allowed to prove that space orientation is one of the specific abilities. Results of researches and their interpretation made possible to establish the following structure of the coordinational abilities: space orientaion (25.79% of common variance in men and 19.20% in women), movement differentiation (21.84% and 19.28%), motor adjustment (8.91% and 13.93%), sense of balance (10.17% and 11.82%) and speed of reaction (8.99% and 8.49%). In these factor stuctures total common variance reached values: 78.28 in men and 72.72% in women.
In conclusion it could be stated that:
1. Space orientaion is one of the specific coordinational abilities and possesses a complicated inner structure yet precision and speed are its most important aspects.
2. Due to analysis of composition of trials which created particular factors it could be stated the functional background of processes of control of movement of the whole body and its limbs are likely different and should be diagnosed separatly.
*Dr, **dr, ***prof. dr hab., Katedra Motoryczności Człowieka AWF, Katowice, ul.Mikołowska 72a
The Motor Adjustment - Inner Structure and Place Among Other Coordinational Abilities
by Zbigniew Waśkiewicz*, Grzegorz Juras**, Joachim Raczek***
The main aim of this study was identyfication one of the coordinational motor ability - motor adjustment. The attempt to describe its place among other motor abilities was also undertaken. This research has empirical character and the results of diagnosing abilities of 92 subjects is presented. The results of computer, laboratory and motor test were calculated using factor analysis. On the following steps the structures among the results of computer, computer laboratory and motr test, and finally all diagnosed coordinational abilities.
Concluding, it possible to state that motor adjustment is independent coordinational motor ability and is characterized as heterogeneous one. The achieved structure of coordinational abilities confirmes also existing research evidences.
*Dr, **dr, ***prof. dr hab., Katedra Motorycznoci Człowieka AWF, Katowice, ul.Mikołowska 72a
The Developmental and Training Changes in Anaerobic Capacity in Girls and Boys Aged from 12-13 Years
by Marek Bawelski*, Jerzy Cempla**, Andrzej T. Klimek*, Wojciech Kobosko*
This study based on the results of 2 years' investigations was aimed to present the developmental changes of some selected indicators characterizing anaerobic capacity in boys and girls aged from 12-13 years. Also the purpose of the investigation was to determine whether and to what extent swimming performance effects the dynamics of changes of these selected indicators.
All the participants (89 boys and girls) divided into four groups classified by sex and trainnig activity performed a Wingate anaerobic test.
Across all the examined groups significant increase in both maximal and mean anaerobic power was observed regardless if expressed in relative (per unit of body weight) or global terms. The results also demonstrate the shortenning of a time in which the MAP value was obtained, although the changes were not significant. The comparison between all the groups indicates the definitely heighest increase in MAP/kg (about 14 %) in training girls. Statistical analyses also reveal heigher increase in MAP/kg in untrained girls compared to untrained boys what can be accounted for the differences in the maturity status.
*Dr, **dr hab., prof. nadzw., Instytut Fizjologii Człowieka AWF, Kraków, Al.Jana Pawła II 78
A Suggestion of a New Approach to a Relative Evaluation of Motor Ability
by Jerzy Januszewski
In the light of the published data on female and male individuals aged 8-18 years, an alternative grading scale in the T scale for the particular trials of the Żak test ( 1991, part I and II) was calculated.
The sugested grading scale allows us to grasp the broad developmental dynamics of motor effects and all possible types of other comparisons. It also allows us to define varied standards, separately for each age group, and presents an insight into a choice of effort trials included in the test.
*Prof. dr hab., Katedra Teorii Sportu i Sportów Indywidualnych AWF, Kraków, Al.Jana Pawła II 78