CONTENTS 1/2011

NATIONAL SECURITY

Lt.Col. Sylwester T. KUREK, Ph.D. Eng.

Model of Poland's Security Management System in an Economic Dimension

Dr. Grzegorz PIETREK

Cooperation of Local Military Administration Bodies with Government and Local Government Administration Bodies in Crisis Situations. Report from Research.

Dr. Telesfor Marek MARKIEWICZ

Human Factors versus Automation in Air Traffic Management (ATM)

Marek CENDROWSKI

Contemporary Perception of Crime as a Threat to Public Security

Ewa NIEWĘGŁOWSKA - GÓRALSKA, M.A.

Crisis Management Tasks in the States of Emergency of the Country

Dr. Mirosław MINKINIA

Process of Intelligence. Part 1

ART OF WAR

Col. (Navig.) Bogdan GRENDA, Ph.D. Eng.

Command and Control System of Air Tactical Base

Cdr. Marek JANKIEWICZ, Ph.D. Eng.

Mine Warfare in the Light of the 21st Century Threats

Col. Jarosław SOLARZ, Ph.D.

Virtual Aspects of Determining Real Situation of Radioactive Contamination

SECURITY ECONOMICS AND LOGISTICS

Lt.Col. Tomasz JAŁOWIEC, Ph.D. Eng.

Logistic Centres in the Polish Armed Forces' Logistic System

Veronika PASTOROVA, Lt.Col. Sylwester T. KUREK, Ph.D. Eng.

Economics of Security in Czech Point of View

Aline BIKERNIECE, Lt.Col. Sylwester T. KUREK, Ph.D. Eng.

Short Draft on Security of Economics

PROFESSIONAL TRAINING AND PREPARATION

Robert CZULDA, M.A.

Germany's Reserve Forces

Lt. Col Marek BETIUK

Preparatory Service - the Way to Deal with National Reserve Forces

Lt.Col. Ryszard BARTKOWIAK, Ph.D. Eng

Preparatory Service for the Needs of National Reserve Forces

Lt.Col. Grzegorz CZEKAJ

National Reserve Forces - Genesis of Their Establishment

Dr. Mirosław TOKARSKI

Disciplinary Preventive Measure not to Allow Performing Duties in the Light of the Law on Military Discipline of 9 October 2009

EXPERIENCES

Dr. Stanisław MAKSIMIEC

European Federalism of the 20th Century. Part 2

Lt. Col. Dariusz BRĄŻKIEWICZ, Ph.D.

The Caucasus in European Union's Policy

Lt.Gen. Bogusław PACEK, Ph.D.

Lt.Col. Artur ROCHNOWSKI, M.A.

Activity of Military Courts and Prosecutor's Office in 1943-45

Lt.Col. Krzysztof DRABIK, Ph.D.

Marsilius of Padua - the Defender of Peace

Olgierd PASZKIEWICZ, M.A.

Contemporary Tendencies to Use Improvised Explosive Devices in Terrorists Attacks

Cezary PĘDZIK

IFOR Role and Tasks in the Light of the Dayton Agreement

Grzegorz RDZANEK

JAS Gripen v. F-35 Lightning II. Rivalry for the Norwegian Contract

Dominik P. JANKOWSKI, Łukasz POLINCEUSZ

Planned Reform of Bundeswehr and Its Influence on German Defence Industry

COMMENTS, REVIEWS AND REPORTS

Lt.Col. Tomasz JAŁOWIEC, Ph.D. Eng.

Review of a book: Jan Figurski, Ekonomika logistyki - częśc 2. Logistyka transportu (Economics of Logistics - part 2. Transport Logistics), WAT, Warsaw 2010, pp. 345

Annual Contents of Zeszyty Naukowe 2010

Lt.Col. Sylwester T. KUREK, Ph.D. Eng.

Model of Poland's Security Management System in an Economic Dimension

Due to the fact that in the contemporary market economy conditions it is difficult to talk about an efficient security system of a country without having an efficient and effective economic management subsystem of the bases of the state security, the information - decision-making sphere of the national economy, examined in the defence aspect, has become the subject of considerations in this article. To make the problem area more precise, the author's intention was to describe an ideological approach to regulatory system of the state security's economic dimension. The aim defined in this way caused that the article deals with the perception of the idea and specific character of the management system of the economic bases of the state, the subsystem of Poland's security's managerial (regulatory) sphere in an economic dimension, regulatory sphere's instruments affecting material sphere and regulatory sphere's prospects resulting from the SWOT analysis. Unfortunately, because of the great amount of the material, the content of the article presents mainly the outline of this complex and multi-aspect problem.

Dr. Grzegorz PIETREK

Cooperation of Local Military Administration Bodies with Government and Local Government Administration Bodies in Crisis Situations. Report from Research.

The overriding task of the research was to define, examine and suggest procedures of effective cooperation between local military administration bodies and public administration in crisis situations. The solutions proposed in the article stress fields and range of cooperation and binding procedures in this area. The research has shown that in crisis situations the use of military units in rescue and prevention operations takes place when the use of other assets (so called non-military assets) is not possible or may appear insufficient. The area not covered in the theoretical and practical aspect seems to comprise the cooperation procedures, mainly obligatory provisions ordering appointing the representatives (chiefs) of local military administration (Military District, Provincial Military Staff, Military Draft Board) into the Crisis Management Teams. The lack of such provisions causes that the current contacts between military administration bodies and public administration bodies are scarce. Moreover, as both the experts and respondents participating in the research showed in their opinions, a serious failure in the organization of these bodies' cooperation is the lack of common trainings, meetings, consultations, staff exercises and decision-making games relating to military units' participation in crisis response. The lack of such activities has a great influence on the organization of cooperation during rescue and prevention operations; consequently lowering the effectiveness of military units' operations.

Dr. Telesfor Marek MARKIEWICZ

Human Factors versus Automation in Air Traffic Management (ATM)

The purpose of the article is to present selected aspects of human factors and automation in the management of air traffic and its impact on the level of safety of flight operations. In the first part of this paper the author examines various definitions and interpretations of the human factor in the general sense and in aviation and air traffic management. Then the role and functions of the human in ATM system and the characteristics of the selected elements of human factors in aviation operations are presented. In particular, these elements are discussed that have a direct impact on the safety of flights: required qualifications of air traffic controllers, human errors, safety culture, situational awareness, teamwork, and the effects of automation. The final part includes key issues of integration of the human factor in the ATM system life cycle. In summary, the author points out that modernization and development of ATM systems result in evolutionary changes to the relationship between teams of human and technical equipment, which are currently two basic and necessary components of these systems.

Marek CENDROWSKI

Contemporary Perception of Crime as a Threat to Public Security

The article deals with contemporary perception of crime as one of the main determinants affecting public security.

The article includes Municipal Police Board's statistical data and the author's own research results relating to the problem of crime in part of the Mazovian Province (within the territory of Municipal Police Board - the city of Warsaw and neighbouring districts) in reference to the Polish research on crime conducted in 2007 and led by Prof. Andrzej Siemaszko. They show the perception of crime as a factor shaping the feeling of safety and security among citizens. According to the respondents, the biggest threats for citizens include murder, rape and other anti-social behaviour, particularly when they refer to personal sphere. At the same time, respondents express their opinions on their own perception of the scale of crime.

Undertaken actions aiming at reducing crime in big cities caused the increase in feeling of threat among small towns' and villages' inhabitants. Respondents who point out that crime threatens more these areas that are not covered by prevention actions confirm this state.

Ewa NIEWĘGŁOWSKA - GÓRALSKA, M.A.

Crisis Management Tasks in the States of Emergency of the Country

The article presents problems concerning legal bases of the organization of crisis management in Poland, particularly existing shortcomings in this area as regards states of emergency. The second part of the article shows the idea of a crisis that may appear and then one of the states of emergency may be imposed. The author shows the specific character of crisis management, describing the order of its execution in four stages of this management.

Dr. Mirosław MINKINIA

Process of Intelligence. Part 1

Within intelligence profession, intelligence means different things to many people, depending upon their functions, roles and perspectives. The term is applied to the product resulting from the processing of information concerning foreign nations, other hostile target and areas of military operations as well as institutions and certain kind of activities. Here it is called the process referred to the intelligence cycle. The cycle describes the basic process which gives the form and context to intelligence activity. In its simplest form the intelligence cycle is described as a four-stage process beginning with the articulation of requirements by a consumer - policy maker, governmental administration or military commander and his staff. Next comes the collection of information related to the requirements, then analysis of the raw information that produces the final intelligence. The last stage is the dissemination of the product to the original requester or other interested and authorized consumers. The articulation of the requirements is the most important part of the process and it is seldom as simple as it might seem. That requirement must be translated into a form that is susceptible to collection by a given collection field (intelligence source) - HUMINT, SIGINT, IMINT, MASINT, OSINT. The collection refers to the gathering of raw data, through espionage, technical means, and exploitation of open sources.

Col. (Navig.) Bogdan GRENDA, Ph.D. Eng.

Command and Control System of Air Tactical Base

The organization of the Polish Air Force (POL AF) is undergoing the process of transformation with the aim of fulfilling the requirements of the modern battlefield and combat technology. As a result, in 2008, new air tactical bases structures were implemented by integration of previous air force bases and air tactical squadrons. The integration of organizational structures and the problem of qualifying the air tactical base for the appropriate command and control subsystem of POL AF (an operational or supporting system) appeared simultaneously. Furthermore, shaping the command and control system at the air force base level in the new circumstances occurred to be more complicated than expected. The most important is to define the significance of groups: air operations, support and maintenance formerly subordinated to air squadron within air tactical base command and control system.

The main aim of the article is to present a new concept of the air tactical base command and control system organization.

The air tactical base through the lenses of the possession of combat aircraft plays an important role in the defense system of the country. The base fulfills its missions in peace, crisis and wartime. Hence, it is appropriate to formulate new guidelines for the air tactical base command and control system, taking into account a number of direct and indirect factors.

Cdr. Marek JANKIEWICZ, Ph.D. Eng.

Mine Warfare in the Light of the 21st Century Threats

The article describes the Mine Warfare and Mine Countermeasures (MCM) structures. In the article, the author discusses the view on current MCM problems and role of Organic Mine Countermeasures (OMCM) in naval operations.

The general conception of new multi-mission Littoral Combat Ships (LCS), combining several different systems onboard and capable of defeating anti-access and assymetric threats in the littorals are also presented.

Col. Jarosław SOLARZ, Ph.D.

Virtual Aspects of Determining Real Situation of Radioactive Contamination

Effective operation in any area of human activity is strictly connected with making appropriate decisions. This connection is particularly strong in situations when the level of risk and uncertainty created by that situation is the highest. These categories perfectly refer to various combat operations which almost always show great changeability of situation and serious limitations in available information. One of the most difficult kinds of combat operations are the ones which are conducted in conditions when weapons of mass destruction (WMD) are used. The huge striking power along with mass spread of contamination, typical for this kind of weapon, causes that the problem of selecting appropriate methods assessing WMD strike effects will be extremely important.

Recreating a real situation of contamination treated as the supreme form of forecasting contamination will take a spacial place in this process. It is conducted basing on data acquired during a detailed reconnaissance of contamination, which should result in ensuring a big credibility of performed calculations. Consequently, we are able to recreate a hypothetical image of cantamination in any time after the blast and use it to make difficult decisions.

The article esassess the usefulness and reliability of this kind of forecasting. The idea and principles of recreated real contamination situation are discussed taking into consideration various limitations and conditions. Particular attention is drawn to these aspects of forecasting a real contamination situation which may be directly applied to concrete aims, connected with decision-making process. The availability of the usefulness of mehods applied so far has been verified and variants of more useful applications have been suggested.

Lt.Col. Tomasz JAŁOWIEC, Ph.D. Eng.

Logistic Centres in the Polish Armed Forces' Logistic System

The current changes in the military logistics system are designed to adapt it to the changing internal and external conditions. Its global nature changes from the purely military character to the military-civilian one. The principle to use the external resources (national economy) is not new in the army, and has been known for many years. A priority issue is to develop mutually acceptable rules of cooperation enabling efficient management of logistics.

The aim of this article is to identify the directions of development of the organization and operation of stationary Polish Armed Forces' logistics system using the experience and capabilities of civilian logistics centers.

Veronika Pastorova Sylwester T. Kurek

University of Defense, Brno, Czech Republic Logistic Institute NDU, Warsaw, Poland

Erasmus Student at NDU, Warsaw, Poland

ECONOMICS OF SECURITY IN CZECH POINT OF VIEW

Introduction

The economics of security deals with economy, politics including all kind of relations and military science as well. This discipline bases on many social sciences, therefore it is impossible to point out the importance of each of them. We can only divide the sciences, which give base to the research of economics of security, in a more or less relevant way. The importance of particular disciplines changes according to the geopolitical situation. But on the other hand, the parts of basic factors influencing the research remain constant. The most essential for the branch of security economics are economic, military, political and scientific-technical sciences.

The connection of disciplines mentioned above provides the military-economic thinking. Without understanding indispensable facts in each science, from which the economics of security takes source, it is impossible to gain insight in the research area.

The relation between economy and politics is an indisputable fact that was confirmed by historical development all over the world. The historical progress changes the point of view on all subjects of economics of security. It is necessary to know the historical context in order to understand the development of the economics of security branch.

My aim is to refer to the present status of economics of security in the Czech Republic. On the following pages, I would like to present the economics of security as a scientific discipline in the Czech point of view. In the first chapter, I will define the science and the main subject of economics of security. Then, I will briefly outline the history which inherently influences the contemporary economics of security. The military expenditures and their level will be shown in the last chapter. I use the military expenditures to demonstrate the demand of defense and security during the historical development.

1. Definition of security economics

The definition of security economics is very wide. Sometimes it is the one of possible research method to explore problems of national economy. It deals with satisfying contemporary and future security needs and influencing circumstances. The economics of security consists of economy theory demonstrating the macro economic influence on providing security and economics in practice.

The economics of security considers the national economy from national security point of view. It is a vital part of national policy - one of basic functions of every state is to provide the defense. This obligation to protect the citizens and the land, granted by constitution, cannot be fulfilled without profiting from the economics of security knowledge.

To correctly describe the security economics, we should define the basic components. According to the general principles, security is understood as a lack of threats and protection against them. Economics has been defined as a part of economy which researches certain economic activity.

Speaking about economics of security, there is a misunderstanding among specialists and wide public. The concepts of military, defense and security economics would always be confused. I have to underline that those lexical collocations are not interchangeable. War economics is the term used to describe the contingencies undertaken by the modern state to mobilize its economy for war production. In the book Geopolitics of Resource Wars: Resource Dependence, Governance and Violence written by Phillippe Le Bilon, war economy is described as a “system of producing, mobilizing and allocating resources to sustain the violence”. Defense economics applies the tools of economics to the study of defense. As such, defense economics is a subfield of economics that tailors economic methods to a specific set of topics. The economics of security arch over defense and military economics. The relation between security, defense and military economics is much closer. The military economics is part of defense economics. Both of the economics belong to system of security economics.

The disciplines connecting security and economy

According to the level of security expenditure, it is possible to divide economy into three types: peaceful defense economy (less then 7-8 % of GDP), war readiness economy (sometimes defense mobilization) (over 8 to 13 % of GDP) and war economy (over 14-16% of GDP is used for security and defense).

The level of security expenditures in dependence on exposure to danger

After the Velvet revolution in November 1989, approach to economics of security has changed. The economics of security is a science conducting research and solving national security problems. It is a multidisciplinary science combining basic economy theory knowledge, strategy, operational research and - above all - management. In the Czech, the economics of defense is an inseparable part of national economy providing for the need of security insured by armed forces, protection of land, citizens and security development.

2. Historical circumstances influencing development of security economics

The Czech point of view on security economics is partly influenced by the historical development (Czech culture on which bases the Czech Republic used to grow under the auspices of sovereign power), partly by membership in international powerful organizations whose security notes are implemented into the Czech perception of economics of security.

Origins of Czech economic thinking in the sphere of security are attached to the first armed aggression in the Czech monarchy. The connection among economy and war was a result of economic plots of war. It grew according to military experience and war measures. After 1526, when the Habsburg monarchy ruled by King Ferdinand I added the Kingdom of Bohemia to Hapsburg Empire, the economic thinking including economics of war was progressing in German speaking countries. The economics of security was formed, or influenced at least, by all main streams of economic thinking.

The intensification of armed conflicts made the connection of military and economic sciences necessary. Especially world wars in 20th century showed the need of economic thinking during the conflict. The national economy was working at high pressure to support the army.

Soon after the end of world conflicts, the Cold War emerged. It caused arms race in its first years. The national economy was burdened with armament. In spite of peace between two opposing blocks, the security expenditures reached the level of war expenditures. The Czech Republic, as a part of the Soviet block, spent huge part of national budget on security.

The basic method of research in war was the methodology of dialectical and historical materialism. It allowed the economics of war to put the studied phenomena in evolutionary context and to take account of their qualitative changes. The view of phenomena had varying perspectives. Among the main research methods of economics of war was economic analysis.

After the Velvet revolution in November 1989, the consideration of economics of security changed. The economic thinking adopted a new methodology, research methods, etc. According to the research at the Faculty of Economics and Management of University of Defense in Brno, the economics of security research in current conditions should focus on the following topics relating to the issue of the efficient resource use:

• Introduction of economic accounts as a means of control;

• Flexibility of accounting on all levels of command;

• Application of operational analysis;

• Carrying out of a comparative-descriptive study of cost-benefit analysis;

• Theoretical preparation of the operational economical research;

• Investigation of mutual relations between cost and benefits;

• Theoretical definition of the cost-benefit analysis in the military sector;

• Analysis of cost effectiveness in the sector of defense;

• Theoretical clarification of the analysis of cost effectiveness and utility;

• Controlling as a means for ensuring the economy of the use of resource.

3. Security and military expenditures in the Czech Republic

Protection and territorial integrity of a nation is a social need. It is the Defense Department, which is responsible for providing it. To fulfill this obligation, the Defense Department needs financial support. In the Czech Republic, the security is mainly supported and provided by the Police and the Czech Republic Army. I have decided to describe the expenditures financing the armed forces of Czech Republic thanks to my military experience. The security expenditures do not consists of military expenditures only; the military part creates the important part of those expenditures.

In the Czech Republic, the security expenditures all together do not compose the one chapter of national budget. The security expenditures are only described at Group 5: State security and law defense according to functional sorting. The main districts of Group 5 are:

• Defense along with military defense, military administration, support of military needs, research in defense;

• Crisis planning in civilian sector along with civilian defense, crisis planning, crisis planning administration, research and support;

• Security and public order;

• Law defense along with justice, prosecution, prison service, public protection;

• Fire protection.

The financing differs. Methods are similar but their representation in percentage is different in each state. Mainly, it is possible to divide the internal and external financing source. The internal sources can be distinguished in financing from gross domestic product and national accrued sources. The external financing is represented by loans, credits or grants.

The main financing source in the Czech Republic is its national budget, which uses the taxes and emission of money to pay for security expenditures. The national loans and issued national bonds are used as a second financing means, but the methods mentioned above are subject to strict control.

We can outline the main areas of military expenditures. The main way of sorting is investment and non-investment. The non-investment expenditures consist of salaries, social and health insurance for example.

The level of military expenditures in the Czech Republic according to SIPRI is shown on the graphs below. I have decided to compare the data from 1990, when the Czechoslovakia became independent. Since 1993, the amounts have been valid for the Czech Republic only, because the Slovak Republic separated. I would like to mark, that NATO recommended level is 2 % of GDP.

Military expenditures in the Czech Republic (in billions or %)

Year	Local currency (CZK)	USD	% of GDP
1990	41,900	10,166	...
1991	43,037	6,666	...
1992	42,497	6,761	...
1993	23,777	2,907	2,3
1994	27,008	3,003	2,3
1995	28,275	2,880	1,9
1996	30,509	2,856	1,8
1997	31,328	2,702	1,7
1998	37,643	2,933	1,9
1999	41,688	3,181	2
2000	44,670	3,280	2
2001	44,978	3,155	1,9
2002	48,924	3,371	2
2003	53,194	3,663	2,1
2004	52,481	3,514	1,9
2005	58,445	3,842	2
2006	55,358	3,549	1,7
2007	53,261	3,318	1,5
2008	48,360	2,833	1,3
2009	55,984	3,246	1,4
2010	49,332	2,831	1,3

Source: SIPRI Yearbook 2008

The level of military expenditure in local currency (CZK) according to SIPRI

Source: SIPRI Yearbook 2008

A percentage of GDP spent of defense according to SIPRI

Source: SIPRI Yearbook 2008

Conclusion

The approach to economics of security in the Czech Republic does not dramatically differ from the European approach. It is considered one of the most important sciences within national security and defense. It is a vital part of national policy.

The development of Czech economic security thinking was partly influenced by the growing under the German power, partly by communist propaganda in the second half of the 20^th century. The membership in international organizations modified the economics of security in the Czech Republic as well.

In my opinion, the economics of security shows a growing importance. Especially nowadays when the fear in the world is related to terrorism and the threat of terrorism, security is the most discussed public topic. It is absolutely necessary to maintain or improve the quality of economics of security which supports the secure surroundings.

Bibliography

1. Kamiński T., Krč M., Ekonomika obrany. Obranné hospodářství, Univerzita obrany, Brno 1996, p.16.

2. Krč M., Nástin dějin ekonomiky obrany, MO ČR, Praha 2001, p.158.

3. Krč M., Notion of Defense Economics, University of Defense, Brno 2006.

4. Kurek S.T., Płaczek J., The outline of security economics methodology, „Economics and Managements“, University of Defense, Brno 2009, p. 19.

5. National Defense Economics. Selected issues, ed. V. Holcner, University of Defense, Brno 2006.

6. Sandler T., Hartley K., The economics of defense, Elsevier, Cambridge 1994, p.1.

7. SIPRI Yearbook 2008, Oxford University Press Inc., London 2008.

Summary

The economics of security in the Czech approach follows the international standards given by leading organizations. But Czech scientists adapt rules to the circumstances. Many other members of international organizations profit from Czech research. Its history and development started as a need of war and was partly influenced by the sovereign power. After World War II, the economic security thinking implemented the Soviet standards. Nowadays, the Czech economics of security is a well-developed scientific discipline and its research is recognized especially in Europe.

Aline Bikerniece Sylwester T. Kurek

University of Latvia, Riga, Latvia Logistic Institute, NDU, Warsaw, Poland

Erasmus Student at NDU, Warsaw, Poland

SHORT DRAFT ON SECURITY ECONOMICS

Introduction

Security economics is a relatively new part of the discipline of economics and at the same time a fast growing field. There is no agreement on the concept of security economics yet. Quite many definitions have been produced, but none of them is generally accepted. The very concept of security economics is contested.

This paper is divided into four parts. The first part introduces the reader to terms: security, human security, what leads to better comprehension of economic security. The second part provides general information of defense economy during peacetime and wartime, expenditures during these times and, through literature review, familiarizes the reader with defense economic during peace and wartime. The third chapter describes the normative problem of defense economics. The fourth and the last part reveal economic security in the era of globalization when the conventional warfare risks are diminished, but the risks of terrorism and local conflicts become more important.

1. Characterizing the economic security as a part of security economics problems

If we would like to understand what economic security is, we must first define what security is. There is no agreement on the concept of security. Even though the wide range of studies of security have been published over the past sixty years, no single generally accepted definition of security has been produced. The very concept of security economics is contested. According to Bellany security is “a relative freedom from war, coupled with a relatively high expectation that defeat will not be a consequence of any war that should occur” . These days security is often defined as absence of threats or risks. Thereby nowadays the attention shifts away from the state-centered notion as “national security” to a concept of “human security” which focuses on individuals.

“Human security” aims at addressing today's security threats in an integrated multidimensional and comprehensive way. By focusing on individuals and communities human security looks beyond the security of borders to the lives of the people and communities inside and across those borders, and provides the analytical framework for developing policies that not only shield people from critical threats but also empower them to take charge of their own lives.

Now we can focus on defining the economics of security.

The common notion of economic security is relatively well understood. It is static components related to the size, diversification and technological level of domestic industrial production, to the degree of:

• self-sufficiency in food,

• self-sufficiency in essential raw materials,

• self-sufficiency in fuels,

• raw material storage,

• level of development,

• size,

• geographical situation.

In this context a typical definition would be the one employed by Michael Intriligator, who says, that defense economics is concerned with that part of the overall economy involving defense-related issues, including the level of defense spending, both in total and as a fraction of the overall economy; the impacts of defense expenditure, both domestically for output and employment and internationally for impacts on other nationals; the reasons for the existence and size of the defense sector; the relation of defense spending to technical change; and the implications of defense spending and the defense sector for international stability of instability.

Nevertheless the concept - security economics can be defined as ”those activities affected by, preventing, dealing with and mitigating insecurity including terrorism in the economy. Such broad definition includes private and public activities in both legal and illegal areas of the economy”.

We could also definite security economics as, “field of national economic management concerned with the economic effects of military expenditure, the management of economics in wartime, and the management of peacetime military budgets”.

2. Defense economy during peacetime v. war time

  War economics is as old as war itself, as a special field of interest war economy did not emerge until the twentieth century. This branch of investigation is much younger than its subject matter.

War economy is the term used to describe the contingencies undertaken by the modern state to mobilize its economy for war production. Philippe Le Billon describes a war economy as a ”system of producing, mobilizing and allocating resources to sustain the violence”. There are not only human activities to be re-allocated; everything that society possesses, all natural re-sources and instruments of production, every productive agent must be employed for the prosecution of war

Speaking about defense economics in wartime there is no such thing as an inexpensive war. First, there is the human cost in loss of life and in the physical and psychological maiming of healthy people. While the personal cost of such loss is immeasurable, the economic cost to society can be estimated. This measure was first proposed by a French economist, Jean-Baptiste Say, in 1803. He asserted the principle that war costs more than its direct expenses, for it also costs what its casualties (military and civilian) would have earned throughout their lifetimes if they had never participated in war.

Secondly, war has economic costs arising from the destruction of buildings, productive farmlands and forests, public services such as waterworks, electricity-generating and distribution systems, roads, bridges, harbors, and airfields, and all manner of personal and corporate property such as homes, possessions, factories, machinery, vehicles, and aircraft. War, therefore, destroys physical capital that has been created by previous economic activity.

Reconstruction after war is a particular economic burden because the finance, imported capital goods and labor used in reconstruction merely restore the losses a country has sustained, rather than adding to the stock of capital available to its economy. Thus, even if it manages to restore all its physical losses, it uses scarce resources that would otherwise have been available for extending and improving economic activity. As most wars since 1945 have occurred in the Third World, some of the world's poorest countries have suffered the most from the economic losses of war.

War also costs a great deal in goods and services to create the weapons of war and to supply the people engaged in the war effort. The diversion of these goods and services - which range from the metals and chemicals transformed into weapons to the food, clothing, and shelter for the armed forces - reduces current civilian consumption, which lowers the population's living standards. Metal used to make a tank cannot be used to build bridges, fuel used to transport military supplies cannot be used on school buses, cement used to construct ammunition dumps cannot be used in house construction. This constitutes the opportunity cost of war - that is, the extent to which the economy foregoes the opportunity to commit these resources to alternative peaceful uses.

In summary, the total costs of war include the cost of the foregone use of the economic resources used up in the conflict. These include the cost of the foregone lifetime earnings of those killed in the war, the cost of lifetime medical care for those permanently incapacitated by the war, the cost of replacing the physical capital destroyed or damaged by the war, the cost of supplying the armed forces with the weapons of war, the cost of sustaining the armed forces and those in support functions (including their pay and pensions), and the losses to the economy caused by the diversion of resources from peaceful investment in future economic capacity.

Also during times of peace military budged must be managed. As Economics Nobel Prize laureate Prof. Israel Aumann says: ”In order to achieve peace we must first and foremost be prepared for war”. Maintaining a strong military during peacetime is expensive. Among the costs are recruiting, training, and support military personnel. These costs include maintaining a pay scale for the military that encourages highly motivated and trained personnel to stay in the military for a career, create conditions for civilians surviving in the extreme situation, run the science and research studies in defense and security fields, participate in the task and operations for the alliance's armies and in realizing defense investments, gather state reserves, ensure with necessaries weapons.

To sum up, peacetime defense economics focuses on issues of allocation of resources between the military and civilian sectors, the relative size and character of the various armed forces, and the choices and design of their weapons.

3. Defense: A normative problem in economics

The lengthy and disperse list of changes to security aftermath the Cold War makes it harder to think through and organize the normative defense problems where all objectives are no longer merged into the goal of containment, but the goal still remains an achievement of a good overall Pareto resolution of risk and conflict. Even though the underlying environment has changed a lot, in a way the same normative imperatives endure. Assuming armed forces can advance these objectives, the old imperatives include:

• avoid/minimize global or greater power war but prevail if it occurs,

• avert/minimize nuclear war but suffer least and prevail in the event,

• prevent/minimize nuclear, chemical, biologic terror, or other large ongoing criminal events,

• facilitate peaceful political and economic development favorable to democratic ideals, and interest of democratic countries,

• manage/minimize “freelance” inter-state violence in its many forms,

• suppress or diminish intra-state violence where desirable to do so.

The objective of “prevail” remains essential even if it places defense economics on one side of a quarrel. The normative problem of defense economics involves: ¹⁴

• how to specify these goals?

• how to measure and weight them?

• recommend the extent to achieve them,

• do this at the lowest cost.

At this level of national and international policy the academic community of defense experts remains on the fringes. Moreover, economics has competition: the entire discipline of international relations is devoted to understanding the deeper root of conflict. Yet economics retains an important role even at this level of grand strategy - the role of identifying relationships among policies and objectives, and researching for efficient resolutions. ¹⁴

4. Economic security in Era of Globalization

The nature of security threat has changed since the end of the Cold War, but the world remains a dangerous place with myriad security concerns. In recent years the conventional warfare risks have diminished, but the risks of terrorism and local

conflicts have become more important. The International Task Force on Global Public Goods distinguishes six clusters of interconnected security threats¹⁷:

• war between states,

• internal conflicts,

• terrorism,

• organized crime,

• use and spread of nuclear, biological and chemical weapons,

• poverty, infectious disease and severe environmental degradation.

This broad definition encompasses natural catastrophes as well as criminal attacks. Causes and consequences of these events differ a lot. Therefore, a further distinction can be made with regard to natural or biological threats, war and (internal) conflicts of societies and human-induced insecurity. Human-induced insecurities is defined as insecurities resulting from action undertaken by agent that result in damage to third person and/or their property. The damage may be inflicted on purpose or accepted as a byproduct. Terrorism and organized crime are examples of human induced insecurities. Human-induced insecurity takes important place in global world.

New technology in the form of information revolution has contributed to creating a global economy and revolution in military affairs (electronic warfare and unmanned air vehicles. Defense contractors have become international companies and are increasingly using global supply chains. Borders are porous to sleeper cells, pollutants, diseases, political upheavals, conflicts, computer viruses, and insidious pests. These enhances cross- border transmissions bring with them new defense and security needs and implications. Even increased trade and financial flow imply novel security challenges and defenses. Globalization also underscores the importance of a new set of institutions for instance European Union. Globalization blurs the distinction n between domestic and transnational security concerns.

Globalization not only spreads security concerns but also provides nations with a greater rationale to act collectively; the difficulty arises because nations are not inclined to sacrifice their autonomy over security matters for the collective good. Thus, globalization presents a host of collective security challenges for instance pre-empting a common terrorist threat, curbing nuclear proliferation and the spread of chemical and biological weapons among rogue nations, forgoing profitable arms trade, upholding an arms boycott, contributing to peacekeeping operations, and reducing civil wars in developing countries - that are extremely difficult to address.

Although today's security exigencies may not threaten apocalyptic consequences, as did the superpower confrontation during the Cold War, threes challenges are nevertheless a security concerns that can be as costly as nuclear confrontation to eliminates.

Bibliography

1. Brück T., An Economic Analysis of Security Policies, German Institute for Economic Research, Berlin 2004.

2. Engerer H., Security Economics: Definition and Capacity, EUSECON, Berlin 2009.

3. Frans A.M., Von Geusau A., Pelkmans J., National Economic Security: perceptions, threats and Policies, Kennedy Institute, 1982.

4. Gibson A., In Order to Seek Peace we Must Prepare for War [on-line] http://www.helium.com/items/1225354-in-order-to-seek-peace-we-must-prepare-for-war.

5. Hall P., The Economics of War, Prentice-hall, Inc., New York 1940.

6. Handbook of Defense Economics. Volume 2, ed. K. Hartley & T. Sandler, Elsevier 2007.

7. Kennedy G., Defense economics [on-line] http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/155696/defense-economics.

8. Kennedy G., Opportunities Foregone: The Cost of War [on-line] http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/155696 /defense-economics.

9. Merriam-Webster's collegiate encyclopedia, Encyclopedia Britannica Inc., 2000. 

10. Müller C., De Ree J., The Threat of Terrorism: The Perspective of a Policy-Maker, EUSECON, Berlin 2009.

11. Notions of Security Shifting Concepts and Perspectives, “Citizens and governance in a knowledge-based society”, 2007.

12. Till G., Chew E., Ho J., Globalization and defense in the Asia-Pacific, Routledge 2009. 

13. Tiltiņš A., The Meaning of Defense Economics in the Context of the Development of the National Economy, “Scientific papers University of Latvia”, Vol. 743, Riga 2009.

14. War economy [on-line] http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/war_economy.

Robert CZULDA, M.A.

Germany's Reserve Forces

Germany is one of the last NATO countries that still maintain compulsory military service. Men over 18 of German citizenship are subject to conscription. The time of conscription is 9 months.

Due to the Bundeswehr's General Inspector's order of January 2007, the Reserve Forces' manpower number 95 thousand, i.e.:

• Land Forces - 35 thousand,

• Air Forces - 15.3 thousand

• Navy - 4,3 thousand;

• Medical support units - 13.9 thousand;

• Support and maintenance units - 25.7 thousand;

• Federal Ministry of Defence - 800.

This number includes 20 thousand officers, 63 thousand NCOs and 12 thousand of other soldiers.

Personnel reserve resources of the German Armed Forces are divided into three categories

1. Reinforcement Reserve (46 thousand) comprises reserve soldiers who hold mobilization assignments on concrete posts.

2. Personnel Reserve (49 thousand) includes mainly specialists - volunteers who hold active duty as a part time job and have temporary assignments to military units.

3. General Reserve comprising remaining reserve soldiers who may be called up in case of mobilization (aged under 60).

There has been a heated discussion in Germany recently concerning abolishing compulsory military service. Several environments, basing on NATO countries' significant majority, suggest introducing professional military service arguing that the character of modern threats favours this kind of the army. Referring in this context to the Reserve Forces' functioning, it must be stated that in fact the process of creating voluntary reserve forces started in 2003 when the principles of voluntary reserve forces defined in the “Concept of Bundeswehr's Reserve Forces” were implemented. Taking into consideration the achievements in this area, it seems that this direction of transformation is to attain a total success.

Lt. Col Marek BETIUK

Preparatory Service - the Way to Deal with National Reserve Forces

The programme of the Armed Forces' professionalization includes provisions concerning setting up the National Reserve Forces (NRF). It comprises information regarding its designation, creating material incentives to join the NRF service and also establishing compensations for employers employing reserve soldiers. Due to these regulations, the NRF will be maintained for the needs of crisis management and also reinforcing military units in case they are used in operations outside the country. The scale of activities undertaken in connection with NRF building, their multidimensional character and importance for the national security justify the presentation of the main aspects of this undertaking.

Lt.Col. Ryszard BARTKOWIAK, Ph.D. Eng

Preparatory Service for the Needs of National Reserve Forces

The article entitled “Preparatory Service for the Needs of National Reserve Forces” presents legal bases and main premises of preparatory service's functioning. The preparatory service was introduced in order to gather personnel reserves for the professional army's needs. This new kind of military service is designed mainly for volunteers who have not taken active military service of any kind and intend to serve within the National Reserve Forces (NRF).

The preparatory service is closely connected with the establishment of the NRF. Its need resulted mainly from the fact that limiting the possibilities to perform obligatory kinds of active military service only to some defined crisis situations and restricting reserve soldiers' category exclusively to former career soldiers, in fact there would not be a possibility to become an officer and a reserve soldier without having performed military service earlier. For this reason it was justified to increase the sources of reserve soldiers' resources, all the more so, only those who have undergone military training will take the NRF obligations.

The preparatory service replaced thee military training of university students. The article presents a complete process of NRF volunteers' training for the needs of officers', non-commissioned officers' and privates' corps. In addition, the NRF soldier's career development is presented on the crisis management assignment. Gaining and training of volunteers within the preparatory service for the NRF needs will require adopting an appropriate encouragement and motivation system which will boost the interest in this reserve service. Performing this kind of service, forecast in 2011, will generate various conclusions which are to be expected basing on experiences from former students' and university graduates' training.

Lt.Col. Grzegorz CZEKAJ

National Reserve Forces - Genesis of Their Establishment

Establishing the National Reserve Forces (NRF) directly resulted from the decision of the Polish Armed Forces' professionalization. However, it should be honestly stated that it did not reserve an exclusive credit and consequence of the idea of NRF setting up. In fact, it was the response to the suggested since the 90s proposals showing that the introduction of reserve soldiers' voluntary military service was not only the adaptation to NATO standards in this respect but, most of all, a consequence of several social and economic processes taking place in Poland after 1989.

Poland's accession to NATO structures caused the necessity to adjust numerous areas of the Polish Armed Forces' functioning to standards biding in NATO. Poland was also obliged to participate in the work of most committees, institutions and other organizations officially accredited at NATO.

In the area of personnel reserves' problems, this kind of organization affiliated to NATO Military Committee is National Reserve Forces Committee (NRFC) NATO. Experiences gained from NRFC work and other international contacts regarding voluntary reserve service caused that these problems were discussed and under consideration both at the Ministry of National Defence and other environments interested in issues connected with the defence of the state.

A breakthrough in the professionalization process and establishing the National Reserve Forces was Prime Minister Donald Tusk's declaration during his expose in November 2007 when referring to the defence he stated that “a complete professionalization of the Polish Armed Forces is necessary though the reduction of people called up to the conscription service in 2008, thus at the beginning of 2010 the service in the Polish Armed Forces will be performed exclusively by volunteers.”

It must be stressed that the main directions in forming the NRF were defined in the “Professionalization Programme of the Polish Armed Forces for 2008 - 2010” which was adopted by the Council of Ministers on 5^th August 2008. According to the Programme the reserve forces were due to take place on voluntary formula basing on crisis assignments as a result of contracts signed. The Polish Armed Forces' manpower was established on 120 thousand (NRF including). Later it was decided that the NRF would number 20 thousand reserve soldiers.

Dr. Mirosław TOKARSKI

Disciplinary Preventive Measure not to Allow Performing Duties in the Light of the Law on Military Discipline of 9 October 2009

The latest Law on Military Discipline of 9 October 2009 introduced some innovations to the practice of discipline. Among others, it categorically opposed to the tradition of alcohol cult in military service in any form and dangers resulting from alcohol drinking, drug or a similar agent abuse in connection with performing military service. Consequently, the superior is legally authorized not to allow a soldier to perform his/her duties. According to the Law, the superior's right not to allow performing duties arises the moment the superior suspects that a soldier is in the state of intoxication after drinking alcohol, taking drugs or a similar agent. The law also contains precisely defined procedures how a superior should behave towards a subordinate soldier as regards not allowing performing duties which guarantee unjustified abuse of this right according to the binding law.

Dr. Stanisław MAKSIMIEC

European Federalism of the 20th Century. Part 2

Federalism in Europe was first introduced in the political system practice in Switzerland in 1848 where with little modifications it is functioning today. It effectively combines language and cultural diversity in the Swiss society, maintaining the unity and territorial integrity of the state.

It has become a model for centralized countries with national and ethnic minorities who demand granting equal rights and ensuring their free development. It is perceived as a system that leads to internal security and protects a country torn apart by feuds against collapse.

Belgium may serve as an example of such an activity whose federalization in 1993 protected the country against the breaking up into Flanders and Wallonia, also Spain and Italy that through regionalization chose an evolutionary road to gradual federalization respecting the rights of national and cultural minorities. In contrast, in former Yugoslavia non-democratic federalism led to the demise of the country, outbreak of nationalism and hatred among nations which resulted in bloody battles and ethnic cleansing.

Federalism in totalitarian non-democratic states, such as the USSR, Yugoslavia or Czechoslovakia was only an empty provision in their constitutions and a façade to legitimating the system. Therefore multinational states collapsed in new political conditions in Central and Eastern Europe after 1989 and new national states were established.

Federalism in democratic states functions in a different way. It perfectly links national and cultural diversity with territorial unity and integrity of the state. It guarantees a broad autonomy to the federation's components and free cultural development to national and ethnic minorities. Countries of federal structure such as Switzerland, the Federal Republic of Germany, Austria and Belgium, in spite of internal feuds, are the examples.

The Russian Federation which was created on the ruins of the USSR significantly copies federal, Unitarian, territorial and ethnic structure of the former Soviet Union. Despite democratic constitutional premises, strong central power, headed by the president tends to restrain regional autonomy and centralize the state. In practice, it is not a democratic system and it does not guarantee a free development of federation's components, national and ethnic groups and fair division of competence between central and regional government.

Lt. Col. Dariusz BRĄŻKIEWICZ, Ph.D.

The Caucasus in European Union's Policy

The European Union's enlargement onto the east has brought about a new outlook on the EU countries' security conditions. It is reflected in the EU policy concerning many states of the former Soviet Union. One of the areas of particular interest is Southern Caucasus, which the Russian Federation is also interested in. In its activities the European Union perceives these geo-political conditions supporting young countries politically and diplomatically, as it happened during the Russian - Georgian war. Many programmes have been launched that support social and political transformations and economic incentives to improve the development of the countries in the region. In addition, European Parliament Resolution was passed concerning the EU strategy for Southern Caucasus. The author presents the EU efforts of planned support for Georgia, Armenia, Azerbaijan and attempts to ease ethnic conflicts and national feuds.

Lt.Gen. Bogusław PACEK, Ph.D.

Lt.Col. Artur ROCHNOWSKI, M.A.

Activity of Military Courts and Prosecutor's Office in 1943-45

The history of armed conflicts abounds in not only numerous heroic deeds. Although left unsaid, it is full of a great number of desertions, thefts and ordinary hooliganism. A high rate of crime and low level of discipline may influence negatively the effects of operations. Therefore both political decision-makers and commanders themselves have always paid a lot of attention to law enforcement and justice bodies and to effective activity of military courts and prosecutor's office. These bodies' operation is also greatly important after the war as soldiers' recovery from stress and their slackness is often accompanied with the feeling of impunity. In the modern history of Poland, the establishment and development of military law enforcement and justice bodies have always been connected with the changes that took place in the army itself. At the end of World War II and directly afterwards, these bodies exerted a big influence not only on the course of operations but on the image of the army as well. They also caused many perversions and conducted actions against the law. In May 1943 at Sielce-upon-Oka in the Soviet Union, the first Polish “people's” army (1^st Tadeusz Kościuszko Infantry Division) was set up under the initiative of communists - members of the Polish Patriots' Union. That army was completely dependent on the Soviet Union. Military prosecutor's office formed and cooperated within the headquarters was tasked to maintain military discipline and order. Following setting up new military formations, new prosecutor's offices were established, i.e. the 1^st Tadeusz Kościuszko Infantry Division, 1^st Polish Armed Forces Corps in the USSR, 1^st Polish Army in the USSR and then on divisions' level. The first Polish Armed Forces' court martial in the USSR was the 1^st Division Court headed by a Soviet officer Lt.Col. Stefan Piekarski. The first division's prosecutor was Corp. Hilary Minc, later promoted major on 7th July on the day of taking over the prosecutor's duties. After 2 months, on 1^st September 1943, the 1^st Corps' court martial was set up, and the Polish Army in the USSR court martial was established on 13^th April 1944. Soviet officers affected greatly the functioning of both those bodies that in that initial period often played an exaggerating role in their decision making and adopting particular solutions. Until the end of the war both those bodies acted actively influencing essentially both the rate of crime and discipline. They also had a dominating influence on obeying the basic principle - law that should guide both these bodies. Unfortunately, they often did not comply with that principle. As the years passed, both the courts and prosecutors' offices evolved in a good direction being led by law and not by the will of military and political superiors and leaders.

Lt.Col. Krzysztof DRABIK, Ph.D.

Marsilius of Padua - the Defender of Peace

Marsilius of Padua carefully observed political events dominated by the dispute of sacrum and profanum concerning the domination in rendering power in the earthly world. He looked for the ways in the complexity of social relations in medieval Europe basing on Aristotle's political theory and established criteria of shaping peace in a state. He had in mind the welfare of citizens who saw the source of law, justice and peace in institutional perfection. The state as a self-sufficient and just institution is a guarantee of social harmony and safety.

Olgierd PASZKIEWICZ, M.A.

Contemporary Tendencies to Use Improvised Explosive Devices in Terrorists Attacks

Fighting global terrorist threats, carried out for years, shows how difficult it is to eliminate them in spite of considerable financial outlays. Paradoxically, combated terrorist organizations are currently not only self-sufficient and self-financing but also carry out attacks at lower and lower costs. We are witnessing terrorism evolution that results from its adaptation to existing environment conditions taking advantage of new thoughts stemming from processes of globalization and technological transformations. However, at the same time this endless fight becomes mutual struggle and terrorists' search for gaps in the world security system that also undergoes changes due to prevention attempts to improve it. We may only hold a draw in that rivalry so far.

Cezary PĘDZIK

IFOR Role and Tasks in the Light of the Dayton Agreement

The author presents an abridged version of the IFOR troops' participation in peacekeeping mission in Bosnia-Herzegovina in 1995 -1996. In addition, he systemizes earlier knowledge included in books and Internet materials issued before. Being aware of the scarcity of books on that subject, he concentrates mainly on materials published on the Internet, such as original documents in English. In a concise way he outlines events preceding

IFOR deployment to Bosnia-Herzegovina and features examples of the UN troops' helplessness in that time. He also quotes documents that enabled IFOR troops' (Polish ones including) participation in Bosnia-Herzegovina mission and defines the force's tasks during the mission operation. He describes main operational tasks, the organizational ones regarding the structure, deployment location and equipment of the Polish troops. Additionally, he underlines the geographical, social, national conditions in which the Polish soldiers operated. The author does not only focus on the Polish unit's participation in the mission. He also briefly presents NATO troops' tasks stressing multinational character of the IFOR mission. He proves that passing that multinational examination was the biggest victory of NATO soldiers, the Polish ones including, in that mission.

Grzegorz RDZANEK

JAS Gripen v. F-35 Lightning II. Rivalry for the Norwegian Contract

The aim of the article is to present and explain one of the most complex problems in contemporary armament policy, i.e. ways to define technical and tactical requirements and acquiring modern armament systems. The example of Norwegian tender for multitask aircraft is not chosen by accident. It is the author's strong conviction that the process of exchanging Norwegian Air Forces' aircraft seems to be a model for European and non-European (Australia, Canada) countries in that area. As the Norwegian experience shows, various operational, political and economic factors decide about the final solution. Interestingly, military requirements, although essential in the course of competitors' offers evaluation, are in practice confronted with economic or political conditions which, in many cases, appear more significant. Moreover, Norway's efforts to find a plane to replace aging F-16s show how complicated and complex network is the modern system of the state defence. Furthermore, it seems to be significant that one of the prime criteria to select a multitask aircraft is the possibility of its limitless use in stabilization operations. Thus it appears that the purchase of a new armament system is a part of a multi-aspect strategy of the country in the area of defence, security policy and foreign policy. The victory of American proposition also shows why, in a particular case, the products of European armament industry lose a prestigious rivalry on the Old Continent's armament markets. In addition, it is interesting to present the principles that Norway takes into consideration while purchasing new types of weapons and armament. Norwegian solutions could serve as an example for many countries, Poland including.

Dominik P. JANKOWSKI, Łukasz POLINCEUSZ

Planned Reform of Bundeswehr and Its Influence on German Defence Industry

The German Armed Forces - Bundeswehr set up in 1955 are currently playing a limited role in the security system structure of the state. It is mostly connected with remembering Prussian and Nazi militarism that led to the outbreak of two world wars. Constitutional constrains imposed on Bundeswehr shaped its secondary role for almost four decades (1955-1994).

The German army has been currently facing the biggest structural and task reform since its establishment. The changes take place in a special moment for Germany as Berlin is trying to rebuild its overstrained position on the international arena. The German government took decision to carry out the armed forces' transformation due to two circumstances: German army's participation in ISAF mission and consequences of the world economic crisis for Germany. Moreover, German elites believe that Bundeswehr should stop to be restricted to logistic, stabilization or development tasks and become a more expeditionary - combat army that within NATO and EU operations will guarantee accomplishing Germany's long-term political and economic interests.

M. Krč, T. Kamiński, Ekonomika obrany. Obranné hospodářství, Univerzita obrany, Brno 1996, p.16.

S.T. Kurek, J. Placzek, The outline of security economics methodology, „Economics and Managements“, University of Defense, Brno 2009, p. 19.

T. Sandler, K. Hartley, The economics of defense, Elsevier, Cambridge 1994, p.1.

S.T. Kurek, , J. Placzek, The outline ..., op.cit., p. 21.

National Defense Economics. Selected issues, ed. V. Holcner, University of Defense, Brno 2006.

M. Krč, Nástin dějin ekonomiky obrany, MO ČR, Praha 2001, p.158.

M. Krč, Notion of Defense Economics, University of Defense, Brno 2006.

National Defense ..., op.cit.

M. Krč, Ekonomika obrany. Financování výdajů na obranu, Univerzita obrany, Brno 1998.

A project financed by the European Commission under the Sixth Framework Program, Notions of Security Shifting Concepts and Perspectives, “Citizens and governance in a knowledge-based society”, 2007, p. 15-17.

H. Engerer, Security Economics: Definition and Capacity, EUSECON, Berlin 2009, p. 4.

A.M. Frans, A. Von Geusau, J. Pelkmans, National Economic Security: perceptions, threats and Policies, Kennedy Institute, 1982, p. 3-4.

G. Till, E. Chew, J. Ho, Globalization and defense in the Asia-Pacific, Routledge, 2009, s.135. 

T. Brück, An Economic Analysis of Security Policies, German Institute for Economic Research, 2004, p. 3-5.

Defense economics, http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/155696/defense-economics, Gavin Kennedy, 17.03.2011, pm 4.50.

P. Hall, The Economics of War, Prentice-hall, Inc., New York 1940, p. 2.

War Economy, http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/War_economy, 19.03.2011, am 10.00.

P. Hall, The Economics ..., op.cit., p. 3-4.

Opportunities Foregone: The Cost of War, http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/155696 /defense-economics, G. Kennedy, 17.03.2011, pm 5.20.

http://www.mypracticalphilosophy.com/shelp/preparewar.htm, Israel Aumann, 17.03.2011, pm 7.00.

A. Gibson, In Order to Seek Peace We Must Prepare for War, http://www.helium.com/items/1225354 -in-order-to-seek-peace-we-must-prepare-for-war, 18.03.2011 pm 6.30.

Merriam-Webster's collegiate encyclopedia, Encyclopedia Britannica Inc., 2000, p. 448. 

Handbook of Defense Economics. Volume 2, ed. K. Hartley & T. Sandler, Elsevier 2007 p. 635-640.

A. Tiltiņš, The Meaning of Defense Economics in the Context of the Development of the National Economy, “Scientific papers University of Latvia”, Vol. 743, Riga 2009, p. 390-392.

H. Engerer, Security Economics: Definition and Capacity, EUSECON , Berlin 2009, s. 6-7.

C. Müller, J. de Ree, The Threat of Terrorism: The Perspective of a Policy-Maker, EUSECON, Berlin 2009, p. 3-4.

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Military economics

Defence economics

Security economics

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