Altneuland: Utopia for the Jews or for Europe?*
Kinga Sekerdej
In 1902 Theodor Herzl published his utopian novel Altneuland. Its main message is the importance of will, which can transform dreams into reality. As he puts it in the epilogue: “…But, if you do not wish it, all this that I have related to you is and will remain a fable”. Being a novel, or even a play (with only one plot), it was meant to gain wider audience than his previous manifesto, The Jewish State.
Although Herzl himself called Altneuland `an instructive poem', it is the vision of the Old-New Land that is more interesting and that made it famous, rather than the literary values of the book. Thus it has been and it is very tempting to compare the vision of Herzl with the reality in Israel and either to praise Herzl's predictions or trace his `mistakes' and criticise his incapability to foresee various problems. This kind of approach is visible in the English translation of Altneuland from 1960, where the footnotes inform us of the realisation of, what seems to be, Herzl's prophecies in the existing State of Israel. However interesting such an exercise might be, I think it is more valuable to examine the message of Altneuland in the context of the time when it was written.
Old-New Land was meant to be an instructive work, therefore the characters introduced by Herzl clearly serve as exemplary types of certain groups of people. Hence the role they are ascribed by the author is of primary importance. In Vienna at the turn of the centuries we meet three different kinds of Jewish circles. The first are young, emancipated and highly educated lawyers, physicians or journalists, represented by Dr Friedrich Loewenberg, possibly the alter ego of Herzl himself. Despite their competencies, they cannot find adequate jobs, due to anti-Semitism, which excludes them from the majority Christian circles. Therefore they spend their time aimlessly in the cafeterias without great prospects for the future, knowing that their professional career will always be dependent on the Jewish bourgeoisie, of which they do not think high.
This bourgeoisie is the second group of Jews we meet in the book, through the Loeffler family and their acquaintances. They appear shallow and vain, with money as the sole concern of their lives. Thus Mr Loeffler is proud of engaging his daughter Ernestine (the unattainable, due to his scarce financial resources, love of Friedrich) with a member of a rich firm, despite the fact that the fiancé is everything but attractive, and that they have known him only for two weeks. Furthermore, the bourgeois feel ashamed of being Jewish, what is expressed for example in the person of Dr Walter who had originally been Veiglstock.
The third kind of Jews introduced in Vienna are those represented by the Littwak family. They are at the edge of destruction, due to extreme poverty and anti-Semitism. However, in spite of their deplorable situation, they impersonate human kindness and dignity, and additionally they have retained their pride of being Jewish. Whereas the first two groups represent West and Central European Jewry, the Littwaks are from Eastern Europe. Their name suggests their Lithuanian Jewish origins although they report to have fled from Krakow, thus they represent a vast category of Russian and Galician Jews.
Among other characters important for the unfolding story, the two most significant are Mr Kingscourt and Reschid Bey. The first personifies the European audience of the book, the second is the only Arab introduced by Herzl. Kingscourt is the primary addressee of the developments of the New Society in Old-New Land, he is also the one who asks most of the questions about Palestine and appears to be more interested in its development than Friedrich. Incidentally, his name may suggest the grand audience Herzl was aiming at, trying to gain sympathy for the Zionist cause among the important and royal figures of his time. Reschid Bey is an Arab educated in Berlin, fluent in German and his father was `among the first to understand the beneficent character of the Jewish immigration'. Thus Reschid is not really a representative of the indigenous population, but rather a Muslim imbued with European culture.
When, after 20 years of solitude on their island, Kingscourt and Friedrich arrive to Palestine, to the Old - New Land, and the reader along with them is introduced to the country and society that Herzl had dreamt of. David Littwak, the poor boy from Vienna, now embodying the new Jewish identity, presents step by step the Land and the achievements of the New Society. Through the whole book the idea of turning will into deeds echoes, as the protagonist and his friends from Palestine always remind the guests that nothing they see is new, that there is not anything that had not existed 20 years earlier. It is just a matter of a proper usage of possibilities that have already existed.
The first impression upon disembarking in Haifa is the `Europeaness' or `Westerness' of the city. `Brilliant Oriental robes' are detectable, but the `Occidental' suits prevail. Altneuland has all the advantages of Europe and America, except that they are much better developed here, because the Society was established from the very beginning, to use David's words: `without inherited drawbacks'. There is everything civilisation requires, moreover all has been improved. It seems to be a better version of what Europe and America could altogether offer at the turn of the centuries. The houses are modern, the street traffic is lively but quiet, the overhead trains are a thoroughly modern means of transportation, although they have existed previously. Altneuland became the scene of a unique experiment of creating a Society from the very basis. The rich choice of theatres and an opera as the ultimate signs of `civilisation' show how victorious this experiment proved.
The New Society itself is not a state, but a voluntary co-operative, an association of citizens. No one is forced to join it, and it is open not only to Jews, hence both an Arab (Reschid Bey) and a Westerner (Kingscourt) are free to access it. There is no indication of a coercive force, like the army or police, although there is a hint that some kind of control exists, when Friedrich and Kingscourt visit the model penal colony.
Although the New Society is ostensibly voluntary and people are free not to join it, those who chose living beyond the Society are looked upon with contempt. The poor enter the Society, as `it is best for them' and they do not have better chances outside. The ones that can afford not joining obviously have to be rich enough, so we meet once again the same bourgeois circle so much despised in Vienna. It has remained equally shallow in Palestine, however their presence proves that the Old-New Land is at least as attractive as Europe, even for that kind of people. They are socially ostracised by the positive characters, however they even do not seem to notice it. Their state of `decay' is pointed out by rather cruel remarks of Friedrich about the ageing process of his once beloved Ernestine.
The New Society seems to embody a combination of liberal and patriarchal values at the same time. People are free in it, but there is a clear division into the elites and the masses. The former know what is best for the Society, and are intent on pointing the right way for the latter. This is conspicuous for example when David Littwak addresses the villagers of Neudorf, telling them that their hands made it (the settlement), but their brains did not conceive it. Incidentally, such a remark seems very inappropriate for the translator, who comments that “[t]his could not be said to the settlers…today. For it was the keen brains of intellectual pioneers…that conceived the ideas of Kevuzah and Moshav”. Thus the vision of the New Society reflects the ideas of Enlightenment. Freedom is the highest value, however people must be trained in order to know how to exercise their freedom and to realise what is in their best interest. Therefore Herzl emphasises the role of elites in the New Society. Although, to use his words, the `surplus population' will come firstly from Eastern Europe, they must be guided by the elites trained in Western Universities.
The ideal economic system presented in Herzl's utopia is the `mutualistic economic order', that employs the best characteristics both of capitalism and socialism. Economy, like Society itself is based on numerous voluntary co-operatives. The newspapers are owned by its readership, the opera and the telephone company by its subscribers, the farms like Neudorf are also owned and ran collectively. There are few individual traders and no petty trade. Instead large department stores, again based on co-operatives, encompass nearly the whole market. In Herzl's view the Jews in Europe were especially endangered by the class struggle, because they stood “in the most exposed position in the camps of both Socialists and capitalists”. Thus the New Society prevents coming to existence both the wealthy magnate and the peddler. By founding this modus operandi, it solves at the same time the social problems, and the specific `Jewish problem', as defined by Herzl.
The most obvious target of criticism in the book is the bourgeois society. However, when the reader learns the achievements and virtues valued in Palestine, one may get the impression that it is indeed an enlightened bourgeois society, albeit subject to slight changes. So Palestine has all the comforts that Europe at the turn of the centuries could offer. There are holiday resorts, theatres from all over the world or the opera. And indeed members of the New Society spend their leisure time going to the theatre or opera, the way the bourgeois would probably do. Moreover, they do not forget to put on their white gloves.
This vision of Old-New Land may indicate that this was indeed the dream of Herzl. It may also point at the audience the book intended to address, namely the Western enlightened society. I think that this persuasive tone is seen, above all, when Herzl discusses the role of women in the New Society. The reader learns that the women are equal to men, what at the time the book was written was not an obvious statement at all. However, not to be misunderstood, Miriam and Sarah underline their attachment to the `traditional' values. Whenever possible, it is emphasised that the fact that women are equal to men does not shake their personal well-being. They work for the Society, but if the husband thought it necessary, they would gladly stay at home. The young girls do not participate in the `school caravans', the educational tours around the world, as their place is by their mothers. Moreover Old-New Land found the solution for the problem of `old maids'. As David Littwak remarks, they are no longer sneered at or looked upon as a burden, because they are very useful. In fact the whole department of public charities is conducted by `old maids'. Thus not only are the traditional values preserved, but they are also improved.
What is striking in Altneuland, among others, is the attitude to religion and its role in the New Society. Religion is mentioned only in the political context. The allusions to religion include the Seder celebration and the Temple in Jerusalem. However, the Passover celebration is not presented as a religious event. The Seder ceremony, in this case, is “half ritual, half family festival”. The Haggadah includes the German translation opposite to the Hebrew text. It seems that the Passover celebration is presented in the book not because of its religious meaning, but because of the political significance of the exodus from Egypt. This parallel, which is evoked quite often in Altneuland, cannot be more explicit than at the moment, when the whole gathering, after the Seder supper, listens to the history of the Society for the Colonisation of Palestine recorded on a gramophone. Not to leave a shadow of doubt, David summarises the years, in which the Society has been successfully established: “Once more there was an Egypt, and again a happy exodus - under twentieth century conditions, of course, and with modern equipment”. Actually this Seder supper represents everything that was most important to Herzl. There is the Littwak family, proud of their Jewish heritage, and Friedrich, who at this moment more than before becomes aware of his national belonging. The presence of the priests and Reschid Bey signifies the openness of the New Society, and Kingscourt, an American by choice and a Prussian aristocrat by birth, who is enchanted by the whole enterprise and bewildered by its success. Finally there is the gramophone, which manifests the twentieth century technological development, which has laid grounds for this success.
The second reference to religion is the rebuilt Temple. “The times had fulfilled themselves, and it was rebuilt”. Despite the enormous weight of the sentence, here again it is rather the political than religious meaning, which seems more important. We learn that the Temple has been rebuilt, but on the other hand it is clear that both the Holy Sepulchre and the Dome of the Rock have remained for pilgrims of the respective beliefs. Thus clearly the new one has not been rebuilt on the site of the Second Temple and its significance is historical and political, rather than religious.
What is interesting is the role of the rabbis in the New Society. Although obviously the rabbis differ, they are divided into “intriguing rabbis”, and the good ones. The latter have supported the Jewish settlement in Palestine and the open character of the New Society. The former, represented by Dr. Greyer, at the beginning were anti-Zionist, and now are against the inclusiveness of the Society. Hence it seems that the rabbis differ exclusively in political matters, as they are above all communal leaders, and in fact only the political differences between them are important. Their religious role is not mentioned at all. When, for example, we meet Reb Shmuel, the gentle rabbi in the Neudorf village, we learn that he was “universally honored for his wise and God-fearing life”, and not for his learning. Thus the responsibilities of the rabbis include, as Herzl put it in the Jewish State, travelling with their congregation, devoting their service to the Zionist idea and inspiring their congregations by preaching it from the pulpit, they are indeed political leaders. This wishful thinking in terms of the role Herzl envisioned for the rabbis is visible already at the beginning of Altneuland, where the first person that introduces the idea of Zionism to the reader is Dr. Weiss, a rabbi. The situation takes place in Vienna at the despised Loeffler circle, where he is ridiculed. Of course, in the end it turns out he was right.
Herzl does not seem to have a clear view of the Jewish-Arab relations. The only Arab introduced in the novel is Reschid Bey, German speaking and educated in Berlin. There is one indication of an Arab village seen from afar, but apart from that the only Arab person, who expresses his views (praising the New Society) is Reschid. If Herzl tried to be precise in drawing the colonisation project with all the technological details involved, he remained vague and general about the relations between the Arabs and the Jews. He envisaged internal problems (with Geyer's faction of the Society), but at the same time he treated Reschid Bey as the speaker for the whole Arab population.
However, I would not agree with Muhammad Khalidi's interpretation of the book that “[j]ust as the presence of an Arab population was what rendered the land repulsive to Herzl's narrator in 1901, their absence is what now rehabilitates it”. It is true that Herzl does not really tackle the problem of the indigenous population, but I think it is wrong to perceive this as an ethnic or religious hostility. What really seems important to Herzl are not the ethnic divisions, but rather the divide between the civilised and the `uncivilised'. Indeed the Jewish national project is presented in Altneuland primarily as a project of colonisation. In 1902 Europe believed in its rights to civilise the rest of the world, which in this understanding meant introducing the benefits of Western Civilisation to the Orient. Thus the colonisation of Palestine is another variation of the civilising mission, the `white man's burden'. The first president of the Society and his daughter, a pair of ophthalmologists, embody this beneficial (for the indigenous population) aspect of colonisation. Hence an educated Arab, like Reschid Bey is a member of the elite, and, on the other hand, the Jewish masses (probably from Eastern Europe) still have to be educated to appreciate fully the freedom offered to them by the Society. Thus the depiction of interpersonal or inter-group relations, unrealistic as it may seem, is not, I believe, drawn primarily in accordance to the division between the Jews and the Arabs.
Altneuland has been criticised due to the fact that there is nothing specifically Jewish in it. Culture is thoroughly European, inhabitants speak the languages they were brought up in (of course the educated ones speak German), the New Society is open to anyone willing to accept its rules. Herzl presents a picture of a reformed, rejuvenated Europe. And it seems that the audience he wants to attract by this vision comprises of precisely the not-necessarily-Jewish Europeans, embodied in the book by Kingscourt. The fact that everything that is related to the Jewish tradition or history, like Hebrew words that appear occasionally or the person of Sabbetai Zevi, is explained in a simple manner, suggests the non-Jewish audience. Also the name of Kingscourt, who grows to be the main enthusiast of the New Society gives a hint of Herzl's conviction that in order to win support for Zionism, the leaders of world politics should be approached. Thus the title `Old-New Land' indicates not only the obvious meaning of the Old Land and the New Society. The symbolism of the title is also pictured by the relationship between Kingscourt and Frietzke, by the fascination and care of the old man for the baby. Kingscourt personifies Western civilisation, whereas Frietzke is the child of the new, experimental Society. He is an offspring, a product of European thought, therefore the Old Continent should fall in love with him and tend him, as his existence is still fragile. Hence Altneuland's motto `If you will it, it is no fable' addresses not only the Jewish people, but also all those who value the ideals of European culture and Enlightenment.
References:
Avineri, S. (1993) `Theodor Herzl's diaries as Bildungsroman', Jewish Social Studies,
Vol.5, No.3, pp. 59-70.
Beller, S. (1991) Herzl. London: Weidenfeld and Nicolson.
Herzl, T. (n.d.) The Jewish State, New York: American Zionist Emergency Council.
Herzl, T. (1960) Old-New Land (Altneuland), trans. Lotta Levensohn, New York:
Bloch Publishing Company.
Khalidi, M.A. (2001) `Utopian Zionism or Zionist proselytism? A reading of Herzl's
Altneuland', Journal of Palestine Studies XXX, no. 4 (Summer 2001), pp. 55-67.
Laqueur, W. (1972) A History of Zionism, New York: Holt, Rinehart and Winston.
* Paper presented for the course:Israel: Nation Building, Political Development, War and Peace.
Prof. Shlomo Avineri, Central European University, 2003
Herzl, T. (1960) Old-New Land (Altneuland), trans. Lotta Levensohn, New York: Bloch Publishing Company.p.294
ibid., p.68
ibid., p.78
Beller, S. (1991) Herzl. London: Weidenfeld and Nicolson.
Altneuland, p.142
Ibid., p.142
Herzl, T. (n.d.) The Jewish State, New York: American Zionist Emergency Council, p.87
Altneuland, p.76
Ibid., p.77
Ibid., p.187
Ibid., p.190
Ibid., p.250
Ibid., p.135
The Jewish State, p. 125
Khalidi, M.A. (2001) `Utopian Zionism or Zionist proselytism? A reading of Herzl's Altneuland', Journal of Palestine Studies XXX, no. 4 (Summer 2001), pp. 55-67
Laqueur, W. (1972) A History of Zionism, New York: Holt, Rinehart and Winston; Beller (1991)
Avineri, S. (1993) `Theodor Herzl's diaries as Bildungsroman', Jewish Social Studies, Vol.5, No.3, pp. 59-70
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