Aleksandra Leszczyńska, SSP II
SOCIAL DARWINISM AND ITS CREATORS : HERBERT SPENCER AND LUDWIK GUMPLOWICZ
The significant impact on the social sciences had the development of natural science in the second half of XIX century. We can surely say that the most meaningful progress was made in the sociology. This branch of science also generated the narrower section - the social Darwinism. This term, first used in 1877 in Europe and then popularized in the United States in first half of XIX century by the American historian Richard Hofstadter, is commonly used to describe the various theories created in the mainstream of sociology. The idea of social Darwinism itself, has already emerged in 1870s, mostly in England and the United States. It stood under the direct influence of Darwin’s scientific achievements, but when it comes to the relation between ideas of Darwin and Darwinists – they have not much in common. One of the few congruous assumptions is to present the evolution as a factor which explains human relations and the process of world formation.
Social Darwinists thought that the discovery of the theory of evolution could have a huge impact on the human nature defined as a totality of biological conditions. They have also claimed that the idea of social determinism in connection with biological factors can explain the process of law making or how political life is created . The most important assumption of this view referred to the biological determinants of human nature, which had also found use in political and legal sciences.
One of the two outstanding authors of this theory was Herbert Spencer (1820-1903). This Englishman was definitely one of the most famous thinkers who are associated with the theory of Social Darwinism. Born in 1820 in the family of teachers, he was autodidact in the humanities. His fame coincided with the time of XIX century, when his books was translated into many languages and he was known worldwide. This thinker was the originator of the theory that biological determinism affects the social and political life, which mostly defines the idea of Social Darwinism. In his opinion, there was such a phenomenon as ‘social abilities’ by which people could predict certain behavior and find a scientific explanation for it. Spencer claimed that there are three types of rights : universal, general and specific. First kind was described as a law which applies to all societies, the second one as the one which can be used only in selected groups of societies and the third – specific one – as the one applicable only in single societies. These three kinds of right was distinguished from a sociological point of view. Spencer criticized the notion expressed by Hobbs and Austin which refers to the unlimited authority of parliament. He certainly did not agree with the assumption of ‘divine power of the king’ and the ‘divine power of the parliament’ and emphasized that there is no reason to compare the authority of the king with the power of parliament, which has no logical explanation to be perceived as the power given by God. Next point which he disputed with, was the utilitarian conception of power. Herbert Spencer stated that anyone who processes the theory of ‘divine power of parliament’ also agrees that there is an authority of most which assumes that the majority of people have unlimited rights. He pointed out that the moment when we realize that neither kings nor the parliament has no any superhuman power is the moment when we note that these institutions have no their own power at all. Spencer headed to the fact, that society is the one who sets the limits of authority and have the power of choosing it. As a result, people have an ability to overturn the law which they do not support, while indicating that there is an exception when the law comes from the morality of people.
Philosopher treated the society as a part of nature. Not only was he a supporter of liberalism, but also enriched it with elements of evolution. He proclaimed that the society, just like nature, evolved and changes its stages of development. He outlined that there is a transition from primitive forms of society to the industrial one, in which the equal freedom for everyone plays a primary role. According to this rule of liberty, every human being has the same loose. The only limit is the non-infringement of the same rights of another man.
Spencer was also enthusiastic of the idea of struggle for existence, and thus the natural elimination of individuals. The man who has to fight to survive becomes adapted to it and becomes more perfect in the biological sense. The thinker stated that this selection should be as natural as it is possible. The state interference was not allowed. In his opinion, the help given to the weakest inhibited the social development and contributes to the society’s harm. He was a supporter of the theory that these are people, not the state, who are responsible for their own poverty and injustice.
The second well-known social Darwinist is Ludwik Gumplowicz (1838 – 1909). He was the most prominent theoretician of the history of state and law. He was associated with the University of Graz, so most of his works were written in German.
In his opinion, the Darwinian struggle of species had a significant impact on social development, which generated the change and the evolution of regimes. Gumplowicz criticizes the theory that the individual could be able to fight for something on its own. He rather favors the statement that people should be combined in groups, because only such a group is able to achieve anything in society. The race theory of the thinker is the reference to socio-political sciences. In his view it is very difficult to achieve the biological purity of the breed. Achieving this state is possible only if all members of society are descended from a common ancestor and the blood ties merge them. Gumplowicz defined race as a historical ethnic community rather than the hereditary biological predispositions.
The philosopher was also a supporter of the theory of conquest, which assumed that the less developed nations were conquered by the more developed ones. In this way, the state formed a specific sovereignty. In theory of the state’s creation, Gumplowicz mentions three stages of development, through which it had to go: the primitive, the feudal and the modern. This last one is described also as a ‘state of culture’ and it should try to neutralize brutality of the class struggle by extending the education, health care, wealth and human independence. If it comes to the history of law by Gumplowicz, he claimed that it was created along with the creation of the state. The violent coercion had to be replaced by a law norms which impersonally sanctioned the rule of a certain social group. The law should provide for the safety and peace but on the terms favorable for the ruling group. In spite of this, law should also guarantee the minimum of rights to each body. According to Gumplowicz, law is a dynamic system based on the struggle of people for their rights, the so-called emancipatory struggle. Gumplowicz concept, also through his critique of Marxism contributed to the development of sociological thought and influenced the development of jurisprudence.
Bibliography
‘Historia doktryn politycznych i prawnych do schyłku XX wieku’ Lech Dubel, Warszawa 2007
‘Social Darwinism in European and American Thought 1860-1945’ Mike Hawkins
‘Historia doktryn polityczno-prawnych’ Janusz Justyński, Toruń 1997
‘Leksykon myślicieli politycznych i prawnych’ pod redakcją: Elżbiety Kundery i Marka Maciejewskiego, Warszawa 2009
‘Historia doktryn politycznych i prawnych’ Andrzej Sylwestrzak, Warszawa 2011