ERROR ANALYSIS
Underproduction – to produce less words (often caused by conscious avoidance of difficult L2 structures)
Overproduction – too many words (learner produces a given L2 structure with much greater frequency than natives of L2 do)
Miscomprehension – dosłowne rozumienie (L1 structures influence the interpretation of L2 messages)
Substitution - use of L1 forms in L2 e.g.: English learner of Polish: Doznal vicarious przyjemnosci. Polish learner of English: think pronounced as /fink/
Underdifferentiation - inability to make a distinction made in another language (word is used in two different senses)
Overdifferentiation - the failure in acquiring a second or foreign language.
Hypercorrection - over-correcting for words or phrases that are actually correct
Calques - a word or phrase borrowed from another language by literal, word-for-word translation.
EQUIVALENCE AND CONGRUENCE
Equivalent constructions – are mutually translatable.
Congruent constructions – the same number of words, identical translation.
WORDFORMATION PROCESSES
1. Internal modification (apophony)-a process which typically consists in replacing, within a word, a particular phonological segment with another one.
vowels: past tense irregular verbs: begin-began; ring-rang; bind-bound; foot-feet; mouse-mice; man-men
consonants: n v: mouth-mouth; grief-grieve; proof-prove; advice-advise; defence-defend; offence-offend
mixed: catch-caught; seek-sought; teach-taught; live-life; breathe-breath; bathe-bath
total modification (suppletion): go-went; good-better-best; man-people
Internal modification (apophony) – polish
kiełbasa-kiełbacha; mięso-mięcho; nos-nochal; papieros-papieroch; kluska-klucha
internal modification + subtraction of one or more segment: ławka – ława
suppletion: człowiek - ludzie
2. Compounding – e.g. rattlesnake, girlfriend, windmill (endocentric), redneck, hotdog, hangman (exocentric)
3. Coinage – the invention of totally new terms: aspirin nylon kleenex xerox
4. Eponyms – new words based on the name of a person or place: hoover, sandwich, jeans, watt
5. Borrowing – taking words from other languages: alcohol, boss, croissant, piano, pretzel, robot, tycoon, yoghurt, zebra
6. Loan-translation/calque - a direct translation of the elements of a word into the borrowing language: skyscraper, superman, perros calientes
7. Blending – mixing: smog, brunch, motel,(english); żelbeton, domofon (polish)
8. Clipping: phone (fore-clipping), gas ad prof lab (back-clipping), flu(both types simultaneously); matma, porno, kola, spoko
9. Backformation: television>televise; option>opt; czołgać>czołg
10. Conversion - the creation of a word from an existing word without any change in form: butter, bottle, vacation; chory, uczony (adjective noun); biegiem (noun adverb)
11. Acronyms: NATO,NASA, UNESCO, laser, radar, scuba, PKP, USA, Pafawag, CePeLiA
ALGLICISMS
Assilimated (substituted) anglicisms – zastąpione
Imported (transferred) anglicisms – przeniesione bezpośrednio z angielskiego
*Aspects:
Pronunciation (wymowa- always assimilated)
Morphology (struktura)
Spelling (pisownia)
Semantics (znaczenie)
CONFUSING WORDS
Leżeć – lie-lay-lain Kłaść – lay-laid-laid Kłamać – lie-lied-lied Wzrastać, rosnąć – rise-rose-risen Podwyższać, hodować – raise-raised-raised Powstawać, wyłaniać się – arise-arose-arisen
WORD ORDER
The normal, neutral word order of an English sentence:
SUBJECT- AUXILIARY - MAIN VERB - DIRECT OBJECT - INDIRECT OBJECT. (John gave the book to his mother. S,V,DO,IO)
Changes of this word order result in the ungrammaticality of a sentence or a change in the meaning of a given sentence, or some other changes in the structure of a given sentence
DIRECT AND INDIRECT OBJECTS
In English, if a verb takes 2 objects, IO precedes DO when IO is a NP. IO with a preposition follows DO.
When both objects are pronominal, IO is usually in a PP and follows DO
A PP, whether a complement or an adverbial may come before or after a nominal object in Polish
OBJECTS AND ADVERBIALS.
An adverbial expression must not be put between the verb and its object in English
In Polish, an adverbial expression may separate the verb from its object
SENTENCE-FINAL
English: She was walking very fast (manner) in the hall (place) this morning (time).
Polish: any order