Cheddar Man – Britain’s first complete human skeleton (victim of violent cannibalism)

Newgrange – place where passage tombs from 3200 BC were found (Ireland)

Stonehenge – prehistoric henge (circular earthwork enclosure) with setting of standing stones; located in Wiltshire

Scara Brae – most complete Neolithic village in Europe (Orkney)

Beaker Folk – Bronze Age people living about 4500 years ago; they spread into most parts of Europe in their search for metals (copper & gold)

Picts - warlike tribes, of uncertain origin, probably pre-Celtic; attacking Britain from the north;

Druids - priestly class in Britain, Ireland and other parts of Celtic Europe during Iron Age (more: LECTURE 2, page 4)

Boudicca – queen who raised a revolution in East Anglia against Roman conquest (61 AD)

Hadrian’s Wall - defensive fortification in Roman Britain, first of two fortifications built across GB, the most heavily fortified border in the Empire; it separated Romans from “the barbarians” from the north

ogham - Early Medieval alphabet used primarily to write the Old Irish language & the Brytonic lang.; sometimes called “Celtic Tree Alphabet”

earl - member of the nobility, the title is Anglo-Saxon with Scandinavian origin

Witenagemot (also called the Witan) – political institution in Anglo-Saxon England (7^th-11^th cent.); ruling class with primary function to advise the king

Shire (sheriff) – term of a division of land (first used while Anglo-Saxon settlement), Shires were governed by royal officials known as sheriffs

Heptarchy – seven kingdoms of Anglo-Saxons (more: LECTURE 4, page 2)

Bretwalda – an Old English word given to some of the rulers of Anglo-Saxon kingdoms (from the 5th century onwards) who had achieved overlordship of some or all of the other Anglo-Saxon kingdoms (more: LECTURE 4, page 2)

Gildas – 6^th century British cleric, author of “De excidio et conquest Brittanniae” (540s) – the narratives of the post-Roman history of Britian

Venerable Bede – “The Father of English History”, English monk, author of “Historia ecclesiastica gentis Anglorum” (731)

Anglo-Saxon Chronicle – collection of annals in Old English chronicling the history of Anglo-Saxons

Hengest and Horsa – legendary Germanic brothers who led the Angle, Saxon & Jutish armies that conquered the first territories of Britain in the 5^th century

Offa’a Dyke – massive linear earthwork; in the 8^th century it formed some kind of delineation between Anglican and Welsh kingdoms

futhorc –runic alphabet, used probably from 5^th century onward (remained in use by Anglo-Saxon England till 10^th century)

Sutton Hoo – ship burial of East Anglican king Raedweld (near Woodbridge, in the English county of Suffolk)

Ruthwell Cross – stone Anglo-Saxon cross (probably 8^th century); most famous and elaborate Anglo-Saxon monumental sculpture and possibly the oldest surviving recording of Old English poetry; cross has inscriptions in both latin and runic alphabet)

St. Patrick – Christian missionary, who is the most generally recognized patron saint of Ireland or the Apostle of Ireland (more: LECTURE 5, page 2)

St. David – 6^th century; patron saint from Wales (1.03 – St. David’s Day); he established monastic rule in Wales

St. Augustine of Canterbury – Benedictine monk who became the first Archbishop of Canterbury in the year 597; considered as the "Apostle to the English" and a founder of the English Church (more: LECTURE 5, page 2)

Lindisfarne – also known as Holy Island; found by St. Aidan who restored Celtic Chistianity to Nothumbria

Iona –small Scottish island, centre of Irish monasticism

Winchester – capital of House of Wessex (1^st English dynasty) -> first capital of England

fyrd –tribal militia-like arrangement existing in Anglo-Saxon England (from ~605 AD), it imposed military service upon every able-bodied free male (pospolite ruszenie)

burghs – fortified towns in times of Alfred the Great

Lady Godiva – wife of the Earl of Mercia in Coventry; rode naked on a horse through the town to convince her husband to lower the taxes

Hereward the Wake –11^th century leader of local resistance to Norman conquest of England

Bayeux Tapestry – an embroidered cloth (not an actual tapestry), nearly 70 metres long which depicts the events of leading up to the Norman conquest of England (culminating in the Battle of Hastings)

Tower of London – founded as a part of Norman conquest of England, castle on the north bank of the Thames in central London

Windsor Castle – founded as a part of Norman conquest of England by William the Conqueor

Welsh Marches –established during reign of William II Rufus; the marches between England and Principality of Wales (in which Marcher lords had specific rights, held to some extent independently of the King of England

The Chancery and the Exchequer –office of state held until today, settled by Normans; The Chancery

The Angevin Empire –the collection of states ruled by the Angevin Plantagenet dynasty (area stretching from the Pyrenees to Ireland)

Thomas Becket – appointed as the Chairman of Curia Regis and Archbishop of Canterbury; begins to oppose the king – in 1170 murdered in Canterbury Cathedral; later canonized becoming the saint martyr; his tomb receives pilgrimages (Cantenbury Tales!)

Strongbow – Earl of Pembroke who conquered the east of Ireland during Norman invasion of Ireland (1169)

The Pale – first English colony; in Ireland; found by Strongbow in 1170

Robin Hood – legendary, heroic outlaw known for “robbing the rich and giving the poor” assisted by a group of fellow outlaws known as his “Merry Man”; active during reign of Richard I Coeur de Lion

Simon de Montfort – nobleman who led the barons’ rebellion against King Henry III during Second Barons’ War, he called the first elected parliament (Montfort’s parliament); subsequently became the ruler of England (ruled for about a year)

Provisions of Oxford – often regarded as England’s first written constitution, installed by a group of barons, led by Simon de Montfort, the provisions forced King Henry III to accept a new form of government

Auld Alliance – an alliance between the kingdoms of Scotland and France (1295-1560); the terms of the treaty stipulated that if either country was attacked by England, the other country would invade English territory

Stone of Scone - also known as the Stone of Destiny; used for centuries in the coronation of the monarchs of Scotland; during War of Scottish Independence the stone was taken by Edward I of England to Westminster where it was fitted into a wooden chair known as King Edward's Chair

William Wallace - Scottish knight and landowner who became one of the main leaders during the Wars of Scottish Independence; Guardian of Scotland during the Second Interregnum; he was hanged, drawn, and quartered for high treason and crimes against English civilians

Declaration of Arbroath - a declaration of Scottish independence (made in 1320); it has form of a letter submitted to Pope John XXII intended to confirm Scotland's status as an independent, sovereign state and defending Scotland's right to use military action when unjustly attacked

Roger Bacon - also known as Doctor Mirabilis, meaning "wonderful teacher"; an English philosopher and Franciscan friar who placed considerable emphasis on the study of nature through empirical methods

William Ockham - English Franciscan friar and scholastic philosopher; considered to be one of the major figures of medieval thought and was at the centre of the major intellectual and political controversies of the fourteenth century; commonly known for methodological principle called "Occam's razor"

Order of the Garter - the highest order of chivalry, or knighthood, existing in England; founded in 1348;

John Wycliffe (and the Lollards) - sometimes called "The Morning Star of the Reformation"; English Scholastic philosopher, reformer and university teacher at Oxford; his followers were known as Lollards (precursors to the Protestant Reformation)

yeomen – rich peasants who bought off land from the poor (15^th century)

enclosure - process of converting common land into private land (end of feudalism in 15^th century)

William Caxton – English merchant and writer who set the first printing office in England in 1476

The Dissolution of the Monasteries - confiscation of goods, distribution of the wealth among nobility, destruction of shrines, ban on pilgrimages, pictures and status of saints

Thomas Cranmer - one of main figures of English reformation; archbishop of Canterbury; wrote The Book of Common Prayer

Thomas Cromwell - one of main figures of English reformation; author of The Dissolution of the Monasteries; executed for recommendation of Anne of Cleves for Henry VIII’s wife

Thomas More - one of main figures of English reformation; speaker of the House of Commons; executed for refusal to sign the Act of Supremacy; last saint of England; author of “Utopia”

Book of Common Prayer - official liturgy book of Church of England; the first prayer book to include the complete forms of service for daily and Sunday worship in English; a product of the English Reformation

Mary Stuart, Queen of Scots - queen regnant of Scotland from 1542; following an uprising against her 3rd marriage in 1567 she was forced to abdicate; she fled seeking the protection of Queen Elizabeth I, but was perceived as a threat as she previously claimed Elizabeth's throne as her own; after almost 19 years in custody, Mary was executed; revenge for the death was one of the causes of Spanish Invasion by Philip II

Thirty-Nine Articles -1563; historically defining statements of doctrines of the Church of England with respect to the controversies of the English Reformation; establishment of Anglican belief; valid until today

Richard Hakluyt - English ambassador; writer; remembered for his efforts in promoting and supporting the settlement of North America by the English through his works

Francis Drake - English sea captain, privateer, navigator, slaver, and politician of the Elizabethan era; circumnavigated the world (Drake Passage, San Francisco Bay claimed as New Albion for England) sinking all the Spanish ships on his way; Cadiz in 1587 - "singeing the king of Spain's beard" - sinking of 30 Spanish ships and delaying the Armada

Walter Raleigh - English aristocrat, writer, spy, and explorer; unsuccessful colonization of Virginia; attempted to find El Dorado; Queen's favourite and probably lover; after Elisabeth's death imprisoned in Tower for 12 years and executed

Petition of Right - (1628) a document limiting the royal power, stating that the king should rule by law and that taxation should be approved by Parliament; Charles I accepts the Petition partially

Cavaliers - (also known as Royalists); the nickname given by Parliamentarians to the supporters of king during the English Civil War; claimed absolute power and the divine right of kings; consisted of nobles, Church of England & Anglo-Irish; leadership of the king and Prince Rupert

Roundheads - (also known as Parliamentarians); the nickname given by Royalists to the supporters of the Parliament during the English Civil War; they fought against King Charles I and his supporters, the goal of the Roundhead party was to give the Parliament supreme control over executive administration; consisted of traders, merchants, yeoman farmers, puritans, navy and Scottish Covenanters; leadership of Oliver Cromwell

Diggers - a group of Protestant English agrarian communists; tried to reform the existing social order with an agrarian lifestyle based on their ideas for the creation of small egalitarian rural communities

Levellers - a political movement during the English Civil War which emphasised popular sovereignty, extended suffrage, equality before the law, and religious tolerance

Olivier Cromwell - an English military and political leader who was part of the joint republican, military and parliamentarian effort that overthrew the Stuart monarchy as a result of the English Civil War; ruled as "Lord Protector" for a five-year segment of the 11-year period of republican Commonwealth and protectorate rule of England; one of the commanders of the New Model Army

New Model Army - formed in 1645 by the Parliamentarians in the English Civil War, and was disbanded in 1660 after the Restoration; it was intended as an army liable for service anywhere in the country (including in Scotland and Ireland), rather than being tied to a single area or garrison; its soldiers became full-time professionals, rather than part-time militia

Whigs - party of Parliament supporting parliamentary supremacy and opposing absolute rule; toleration to various Protestant groups; 'no popery' attitude - severely anti-Catholic, fearing a Catholic king; rival to Tories

Tories - party of Parliament supporting royal prerogative and established Anglican Church; non-resistance - the divine rights of the king; rival to Whigs

Christopher Wren - one of the most highly acclaimed English architects in history; he used to be accorded responsibility for rebuilding 51 churches in the City of London after the Great Fire in 1666, including his masterpiece - St. Paul's Cathedral

John Locke - widely known as the Father of Classical Liberalism; English philosopher and physician; his work had a great impact upon the development of epistemology and political philosophy; postulated that the mind was a blank slate or tabula rasa

Francis Bacon - English philosopher, statesman, scientist, jurist and author; although his political career ended in disgrace, he remained extremely influential through his works, especially as philosophical advocate and practitioner of the scientific method during the scientific revolution; called the creator of empiricism

Thomas Hobbes - English philosopher, best known today for his work on political philosophy; his 1651 book "Leviathan" established the foundation for most of Western political philosophy from the perspective of social contract theory

Isaac Newton - English physicist, mathematician, astronomer, natural philosopher, alchemist, and theologian, who has been "considered by many to be the greatest and most influential scientist who ever lived"; in his work from 1687 Newton described universal gravitation and the three laws of motion; his theory of gravitation removed the last doubts about heliocentrism and advanced the Scientific Revolution

Royal Society - learned society for science, and is possibly the oldest such society in existence; founded in November 1660, it was granted a right to an body corporate by King Charles II; The Society acts as the UK's Academy of Sciences, and funds research fellowships and scientific start-up companies

Jacobites - the political movement in Britain dedicated to the restoration of the Stuart kings to the throne of England

John Churchill, Duke of Marlborough - ancestor of Winston Churchill; military commander, statesman and national hero; dominated the reign of Queen Anne

Bonnie Prince Charlie (Charles Edward Stuart; the Young Pretender) - the second Jacobite pretender to the thrones of Great Britain and Ireland; best known as the instigator of the unsuccessful Jacobite uprising of 1745, in which he led an insurrection which ended in defeat at the Battle of Culloden that effectively ended the Jacobite cause

Highland clearances - the forced displacement and genocide of a significant number of people in the Scottish Highlands during the 18th and 19th century, as a result of an agricultural revolution carried out by the British Government and Scottish landowners

David Hume - a Scottish philosopher, historian, economist, and essayist, known especially for his philosophical empiricism and skepticism; one of the most important figures in the history of Western philosophy and the Scottish Enlightenment

Adam Smith - a Scottish social philosopher and a pioneer of political economy, one of the key figures of the Scottish Enlightenment

Jeremy Bentham – English author, jurist, philosopher, and legal and social reformer; became a leading theorist in Anglo-American philosophy of law; best known for his advocacy of utilitarianism and animal rights and the idea of the panopticon (the concept of the design is to allow an observer to observe all inmates of an institution without them being able to tell whether or not they are being watched)

East India Company - an English and later (from 1707) British joint-stock company formed for pursuing trade with the East Indies but which ended up trading mainly with the Indian subcontinent; shares of the company were owned by wealthy merchants and aristocrats; the government owned no shares and had only indirect control; The Company operated its own large army with which it controlled major portions of India

Robert Clive - (also known as Clive of India) British officer who established the military and political supremacy of the East India Company in Bengal; credited with securing India, and the wealth that followed, for the British crown

James Cook - British explorer, navigator and cartographer who ultimately rose to the rank of captain in the Royal Navy; in 1770 visited New Zealand and Great Barrier Reef, year later claimed Australia and named it New South Wales; Crossed the Antarctic circle and sailed around Antarctica ; in 1780 discovered Christmas Island and the Hawaii

Horatio Nelson - flag officer famous for his service in the Royal Navy, particularly during the Napoleonic Wars; noted for superb grasp of strategy and inspirational leadership; wounded several times in combat (losing one arm and the sight in one eye); of his several victories, the best known and most notable was the Battle of Trafalgar in 1805, during which he was shot and killed

Duke of Wellington (Arthur Wellesley) - British soldier and statesman, a native of Ireland, one of the leading military and political figures of the 19th century; rose to prominence as a general during the Peninsular campaign of the Napoleonic Wars and later was promoted to the rank of field marshal; he was twice prime minister under the Tory party

the Luddites - social movement of 19th-century English textile artisans who protested (often by destroying mechanized looms) against the changes produced by the Industrial Revolution, that replaced them with less skilled, low wage labour, and which they felt were leaving them without work and changing their way of life

James Watt - Scottish inventor and mechanical engineer whose improvements to the Newcomen steam engine were fundamental to the changes brought by the Industrial Revolution in both his native Great Britain and the rest of the world

George Stephenson - English civil engineer and mechanical engineer who built the first public railway line in the world to use steam locomotives, renowned as being the "Father of Railways"

corn laws - trade laws designed to protect cereal producers in the UK against competition from less expensive foreign imports between 1815 and 1846; this ban on import of cheap grain resulted in rise of bread prices which then caused riots

Edmund Burke - Irish statesman, author, orator, political theorist and philosopher who, after moving to England, served for many years in the House of Commons of Great Britain as a member of the Whig party; mainly remembered for his support of the cause of the American Revolutionaries, and for his later opposition to the French Revolution

John Stuart Mill - British philosopher, political economist and civil servant; an influential contributor to social theory, political theory, and political economy; his conception of liberty justified the freedom of the individual in opposition to unlimited state control

William Wilberforce - British politician, philanthropist, and a leader of the movement to abolish the slave trade

Durham Report - important document in the history of Quebec, Ontario, Canada and the British Empire; the British Whig politician John George Lambton (1st Earl of Durham) was sent to the Canada in fear of Canada following the path of American colonies to investigate and report on the causes of the rebellions of 1837–38; the general conclusions of the report that pertained to self-governance were enacted in Australia and New Zealand and other mostly ethnically British colonies

Prince Albert - the husband of Queen Victoria of Great Britain and Ireland; he adopted many public causes, such as educational reform and a worldwide abolition of slavery, and took on the responsibilities of running the Queen's household, estates and office; heavily involved with the organisation of the Great Exhibition of 1851; aided in the development of Britain's constitutional monarchy

Great Exhibition - international exhibition that took place in Hyde Park, London, from 1 May to 15 October 1851; it was the first in a series of World's Fair exhibitions of culture and industry that were to become a popular 19th-century feature

Florence Nightingale - celebrated English nurse, writer and statistician; came to prominence for her pioneering work in nursing during the Crimean War, where she tended to wounded soldiers; in1860 laid the foundation of professional nursing with the establishment of her nursing school in London - the first secular nursing school in the world

The Raj - British rule in the Indian subcontinent between 1858 and 1947 (the term can also refer to the period of dominion)

Scramble for Africa - process of invasion, occupation, colonization and annexation of African territory by European powers during the New Imperialism period (between 1881 and World War I)

Cecil Rhodes - English-born South African businessman, mining magnate, and politician; founder of the diamond company De Beers; an ardent believer in British colonial imperialism, he was the founder of the african state of Rhodesia, which was named after him

Herbert Kitchener - Irish-born British Field Marshal and proconsul who won fame for his imperial campaigns; at the start of the First World War, Lord Kitchener became Secretary of State for War; organised the largest volunteer army that Britain, and indeed the Empire, had seen and a significant expansion of materials production; his commanding image, appearing on recruiting posters demanding "Your country needs you!" remains recognised and parodied in popular culture to this day

Isamgard Kingdom Brunel - English civil engineer who built bridges and dockyards including the construction of the first major British railway (the Great Western Railway) a series of steamships (including the first propeller-driven transatlantic steamship) and numerous important bridges and tunnels; his designs revolutionised public transport and modern engineering

Charles Darwin - English naturalist who established that all species of life have descended over time from common ancestors and proposed the scientific theory that this branching pattern of evolution resulted from a process that he called natural selection; he published his theory with compelling evidence for evolution in his 1859 book "On the Origin of Species"

Fabian Society - British socialist movement, whose purpose is to advance the principles of democratic socialism via gradualist and reformist (rather than revolutionary) means; it is best known for its initial ground-breaking work beginning late in the 19th century and continuing up to World War I

James Keir Hardie - Scottish socialist and labour leader; he was the first Independent Labour Member of Parliament elected to the Parliament of the United Kingdom; regarded as one of the primary founders of the Independent Labour Party

Suffragists - name for late 19th and early 20th century movement for women's suffrage (right to vote) in the United Kingdom, in particular members of the Women's Social and Political Union

Entente Cordiale - series of agreements signed on 8 April 1904 between the United Kingdom and the French Republic; beyond the immediate concerns of colonial expansion addressed by the agreement, the signing of the Entente Cordiale marked the end of almost a millennium of intermittent conflict between the two nations and their predecessor states, and the formalisation of the peaceful co-existence that had existed since the end of the Napoleonic Wars

Douglas Haig - British senior officer during World War I; commanded the British Expeditionary Force (BEF) from 1915 to the end of the War; he was commander during the Battle of the Somme, the Third Battle of Ypres, and the Hundred Days Offensive, which led to the armistice in 1918

IRA (The Irish Republican Army) - an Irish republican revolutionary military organisation descended from the Irish Republican Brotherhood (an organisation that staged the Easter Rising); in 1919 the Irish Volunteers were recognised by Dail Eireann as its legitimate army; thereafter, the IRA waged a guerrilla campaign against British rule in Ireland in the 1919–21 Irish War of Independence

Sinn Fein - founded on in 1905 by Arthur Griffith; in 1914 many Sinn Féin members took part in Easter Rising; in the 1918 general election, Sinn Féin won 73 of Ireland's 105 seats, and in January 1919, its MPs assembled in Dublin and proclaimed themselves Dáil Éireann - the parliament of Ireland; the party supported the IRA during the War of Independence, and members of the Dáil government negotiated the Anglo-Irish Treaty with the British Government in 1921; currently the second-largest party in the Northern Ireland Assembly

appeasement - a diplomatic policy aimed at avoiding war by making concessions to an aggressor; used by European democracies in the 1930s who wished to avoid war with the dictatorships of Germany and Italy, bearing in mind the horrors of World War I

Harold Alexander - British military commander and field marshal of Anglo-Irish descent who served with distinction in both world wars and, afterwards, as Governor General of Canada, the 17th since Canadian Confederation

Bernard Montgomery - nicknamed "Monty" and the "Spartan General"; British Army officer; during the Second World War he commanded the 8th Army from August 1942 in the Western Desert until the final Allied victory in Tunisia (this command included the Battle of El Alamein); responsible for planning the D-Day invasion in Normandy