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BELOW LEFT Ermanno da Sassoferrato, the Capitano del Popolo of Perugia in 1278.

BELOW RIGHT Matteo da Corriggia di Parma, the Podesta in 1278. Both of these are the work of Nicola or Giovanni Pisano. (In sitUj Fontana Maggiore, Perugia)

Fortunately there were several other systems of government in medieval Italy. The Podesta system came about when rivalry between po^ Tful families disrupted daily and commercial e to such an extent that a paid official was brought in to maintain law and order for a fixed period. The popolo form of government usurped the power of the former dominant families, but it did not rep-resent the majority as one might expect: instead it championed the cause of the ‘new rich’ merchant class. Once in power, they drew up laws which reduced the influence of the ‘old rich’. The popolo system reached its peak in the mid-13th century, drawing representatives from leading merchant guilds, though not from the ranks of humble craftsmen. In Florence in 1250, a typical popolo took control of the city. The societas popali, or ‘society of the [non-aristocratic] people’, formed the Primo Popolo (Tirst popular’ government) based upon the interests of commercial groups and the infantry militia. Florence, like many other cities, also appointed a Capitano dcl Popolo, or leader of the militia forces, as a counterweight to the morę established Podesta. However, this did not end factional fighting, and eventually the guild-based Priori oligarchy took over, goyerning Florence with considerable success throughout the 14th century. Meanwhile in the rival city of Siena a similar oligarchy of merchant bankers called the Ncweschi held power from 1287 until 1355. Many other cities went through a similar process.

Political tensions came in several forms. There were tensions not only within cities but also between a city and its contado, which was a vital source of both food and military manpower. Cities tried to nibble away at their rivals’ contado, sometimes through economic warfare, sometimes through the use of military force. Later in the 14th century the process was taken a step further: mountain regions were occupied by the cities in order to control trade routes and exploit iron mines for their arms industries. Weaker cities struggled to avoid being taken over by bigger ones. For example, Lucca tried so hard not to antagonise its powerful neighbour that it was forced to accept humiliating treaties.

Medieval Italy was also divided between Ghibellines and Guelfs. The former saw the German Emperor as Italy’s best defence in a hostile world: the latter perceived the Emperor as a threat and thus supported the Papacy’s bid for