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patrolled, surprised French raiders who were on their way to besiege it. A large-scale ambush was that of Duke WillianFs attack on the French/Angevin rear, trapped by the tide while Crossing the ford at Varaville in 1057.

MOTIVATION

The sons of the Norman nobility, like those in other parts of western Europę, had limited opportunities. The eldest, especially in England, would usually inherit the patrimony but for the rest the main outlet was either the church or a military career. The eldest was expected to become a knight, other younger sons who chose war as a profession also found knighthood expedient. Some became vassals of great lords, receiving land or living as household knights. Some would marry a rich heiress and so obtain land; some would become rich through tournaments. Others became soldiers of fortunę, seeking wealth abroad and eventually carving out kingdoms in Italy, Sicily and the Holy Land. Still others hired themselves out as mercenaries. Thus Norman knights sold their services to the Byzantine Emperor soon after arm ing in Italy. Ali were endeavouring to promote their

4 mailcoat, split at the sides in the old fashion, is worn by this warrior in a depiction of the Massacre of the Innocents. His sword is carried under the mail but on the right side rather than the left, possibly a mistake of the artist. (By permission of the British Library, Ms Cotton Nero C 4 f i 4)

career in a harsh world which, to men of their birth, offered only the church as an alternative.

We know from Orderic that not all such men were uncultured, for the knights of Maule used to enjoy holding academic conversations with the monks in the cloisters of the priory there. Others, such as the Earl of Chester, had a noisy household crowded with men and dogs. He was a man who uncaringly rode roughshod over the crops of his peasant tenants when out hunting yet was careful to keep a poet at his court. In the 1 ith century knights were brought up on epic tales of heroes, stories short on love interest and long on blood and fighting. In the i2th century courtly love themes crept slowly in from Southern France and romances, often with Arthurian themes, began to arise. Moreover there was a certain esprit de corps among knights, even if often for the fact that a captured knight meant ransom money. Loyalty to your lord was, however, an important concept, as was honour. Peasants fared badly during unrest and footsoldiers were cut down with impunity after a defeat. A few men were exceptionally cruel and treacherous; Robert of Belleme had a liking for torturing prisoners rather than ransoming them. Yet men were not unaware of the evil they did. The Conąueror on his deathbed was, so it was reported, weighed down by guilt at the blood he had shed. Some knights, after a life of violence, took the cross

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