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and tlie Great Society, were efFectively outgrowtlis of the movement for racial eqnahty. Tlierefore, altliough tlie civil rights movement itself lost focus and dissipated in tlie 1970s, tlie effects of its concrete aclńevements have endured, not only for blacks but for otlier marginalized groups in American society as well.

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Stokely Carmichael

Black leader who called for independence, self-reliance, and black nationalism in his 1967 book Black Power . Carmichael became tired of tlie Student Nonviolent Coordinating Committee^ tlieory of “love and noimolence” and expelled its wbite members in 1966. He condoned tlie use of violence to achieve revolution and independence and even envisioned splittuig tlie United States into separate black and wlnte countries.

W. E. B. Du Bois

Harvard-educated black lnstorian and sociologist who puslied for botli equal econonuc and social rights for African Amencans in tlie late nineteentli and early twentietli centuńes. Du Bois disagreed witli otlier black leaders, sucli as Booker T. Washington, who fought only for economic equality. Du Bois also worked to develop a “black consciousness,” promoting black history, religious heritage, art, musie, and culture. He also lielped found tlie NAACP m 1909.

Dwight D. Eisenhower

Tlie least supportive president of tlie civil rights movement in die nud—twentietli century. Eisenhower rehised to endorse or comment publicly on tlie Supreme Court’s decision in Brown v. Board of Education and even pnvately adnńtted tliat he regretted appointing Chief Justice Earl Warren to tlie bencli. Altliough Eisenhower did dispatch federal troops to oversee tlie uitegration of Central High School during the Little Rock crisis, he did so only because Arkansas govenior Orval Faubus had defied a federal court order, not because he believed in uitegration. Moreover, Eisenhower had also opposed President Truman’s Executive Order 9981 to desegregate the anned forces in 1948. Eisenhower did sign the Civil Rights Act of 1957 , but only as a political gesture and only after assuńng soutliemers tliat tlie act would have little linpact on day-to-day lite.

Marcus Garvey

A lamaican linmigrant and black activist who promoted black nationalism and the idea of tlie “New Negro” in black communities in New York during tlie Harlem Renaissance of tlie 1920s. Garvey’s Universal Negro Improvemcnt Association encouraged blacks to become independent and self-sufficient and to do morę business witliin tlie black community. He also led a movement to resettle blacks in Africa. In 1927, however, the federal government deported Garvey after he was indicted on charges of mail traud. Still, his message liilluenced futurę black leaders, includmg Elijah Muhammad, Malcolm X. and Stokely Carmichael.

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