NR 19 i 20 ANTROPOMOTORYKA 1999

CONTENTS

FROM EDITORS

Jan Szopa - Dear Readers

DISSERTATIONS AND ARTICLES

Jan Szopa, Wiesław Chwała, Tadeusz Ruchlewicz - Identification, Structure and Validity of Testing of Motor Abilities

Małgorzata Żychowska - The Effects of Differentiated Ambient Temperature on Physiological and Biochemical Traits During Repeated Wingate Tests

Adam Żuchowicz, Ryszard Kubica, Aleksander Tyka, Małgorzata Żychowska, Tomasz Pałka - Exercise Thermoregulation After Physical Training in Warm and Temperate Environments

Albertas Skurvydas, Jan Jaščanin, Jerzy Eider - Low Frequency Fatigue (LFF) of Quadriceps Muscle During Eccentric Exercise

Albertas Skurvydas, Jan Jaščanin, Jerzy Eider - Verification of Hypotheses of “Myofibrillic“ and “Calcic“ post-tetanic Potentiation of Muscle

Wiesław Osiński, Tadeusz Mieczkowski - Effects of Physical Training on Weight Reduction, Body Composition and Motor Fitness in Overweight Women Aged 50-59 and 60-69

Stanisław Sterkowicz - Differences in the Specific Movement Activity of Men and Women Practising Judo

Edward Mleczko, Tadeusz Ambroży, Jan Szopa, Małgorzata Żychowska - The Influence of Environmental Pollution on Somatic and Functional Development of Children and Young People from the Cracow Region, Poland

REVIEW ARTICLES

Jan Szopa - About the Motority Structure - an Attempt to the System Approach

Włodzimierz Starosta - Movements Symmetrization - a New Concept of Motor Learning in Sport

Stanisław Żak - The Necessity of Relative Estimation of Motor Fitness

Elżbieta Budkiewicz, Renata Mroczek - Bibliography of Contains of the Journal “Antropomotoryka” (Studies in Human Motoricity) for Years 1989 - 1999)

Jan Szopa - Dear Readers

According to the suggestion of Polish Academy of Science and - dynamically developing - International Association of Sport Kinetics, we decided to transform our Journal “Antropomotoryka” (till now edited in Polish) to “Journal of Human Kinetics”. We hope, that this transformation shall enable to realize two main purposes:

promotion of Polish physical culture sciences in perspective of our entrance to “Common Europe”,

creating possibilities of international exchange of results of many investigations conducting by members of IASK.

We are very obliged to our Collegous for acceptation of our proposal to take part in Editorial Board. This fact is a guarantee both of high level of our journal and of its broad promotion in the world.

Because of a very short term of preparing materials to the first number, it contains an articles only Polish Authors, mainly from Cracow center. Apart from them we hope, that it will be interesting and enable to know the main problems of our actually investigations. We are sure that starting from number 2, a “circle” of Authors shall be much broadened.

Jan Szopa, Wiesław Chwała, Tadeusz Ruchlewicz - Identification, Structure and Validity of Testing of Motor Abilities

The aim of the study was to establish elementary structure of motor abilities based on structural — energetic principles and validity of indirect testing using various types of motor tests. The examined group included 243 persons (91 women and 143 men aged 21- 23) — students of Univ. School of Phys. Educ., not practising competitive sports. This group can be characterised as having fully developed motor potential and relatively uniformed level of motor skills. 104 tests involving elementary parameters characterising muscle work (speed of involvement, maximal values and rate of strength decreasing) during isometric and dynamic contractions were run in laboratory conditions. Additionally, 13 motor fitness tests were conducted to check testing validity as a measures of particular abilities. Three — stage factor analysis and taxonomic method of Ward were applied to reduce the number of parameters and to select the most representative ones: they were selected for the stage III and treated as “golden standards”. Markers and Ward analysis were used to establish further tests validity by their individual confrontation with the whole “area” of motor abilities.

It was found that all the parameters can be grouped into 7 main abilities: global strength, local strength, anaerobic alactacid and lactacid power, speed of muscles mobilisation, maximal oxygen uptake and muscles resistance to tiredness. They have common biological backgrounds and cover all “potential side” of motority having structural — energetic roots (“health - related fitness”). The tests of highest validity are: “medicine ball throw backward” (global strength), “arm bent” (local strength), “standing long jump” (MAP), “shuttle run 4 x 10 m” (speed of muscles mobilisation), “300 m run” (lactacid MAP), “Cooper Test” (maximal oxygen uptake) and “sit - ups” (muscle resistance to tiredness).

Key words: Motor abilities, Motor tests validity, Multivariate analysis

Małgorzata Żychowska - The Effects of Differentiated Ambient Temperature on Physiological and Biochemical Traits During Repeated Wingate Tests

The aim of the study was to analyse the indices determining the maximal anaerobic power and related to its physiological and biochemical components during repeatetive Wingate Tests at three ambient temperatures (24°, 32° and 37°) at stable humidity (50%). The investigated group included 14 men at the age of 20-22, students of Univ. School of Physical Education, with different levels of training. Before, during and after efforts (done in thermo-climatic chamber) the following parameters were registered:

Mechanical ones, characterising maximal power (number of rotations, time of developing the maximal power, values of maximal and relative power, the rate of power decrease, the average power).

physiological; temperatures of skin, muscle and rectum, HR, Ht

biochemical: [H+], [HCO3]-, [Na+], [K+], [Cl-], level of lactates.

As far as it was possible with such a small sample, the statistical characteristics (_, SD) were calculated. Apart from total group characteristics, the individual variability was estimated for each parameter. Calculations were done for two groups divided according to the maximum power criterion.

It was found, that external temperature had a definite impact on all analysed parameters, especially the mechanical ones and body thermo-regulation. Optimal temperature for reaching the maximal anaerobic power was 32° C. Twenty minutes' rest proved too short for full recovery, but it had no influence on the results of the next test.

Significant and multidirectional inter — individual differentiation resulting from the level of training point out to the fact that while testing humans we should take into account the heterogeneity of examined groups. It means that the same methods should be used in human physiology as in other biological sciences (sample size, representativity, limitation of statistical methods).

Small size of examined group and “averaging” of their results must be treated as certain incorrectness (especially while estimating the scale of the phenomena), and generalisation of results to the whole population is not justified.

Key words: Exercise physiology — Wingate Test — Thermo-regulation

Adam Żuchowicz, Ryszard Kubica, Aleksander Tyka, Małgorzata Żychowska, Tomasz Pałka - Exercise Thermoregulation After Physical Training in Warm and Temperate Environments

The main aim of studies was to evaluate the effect of ten days exercise training (ET) and exercise-thermal training (ETT) on the level of thermoregulatory reactions during control long lasting exercise test (CET) and standard exercise test (ST) by which the values of maximum oxygen uptake (VO2 max) were estimated.

Ten men were taken as subjects. The other ten were controls (without physical training).

The experimental approach resulted from the hypothesis that the same value of thermal stimulus i.e. the equal change in rectal temperature will cause the same effect in exercise thermoregulatory reactions. In ET each training unit lasted 90 mins and and the level of Tre at the end of that exercise were taken as a criterion for the duration of the period of ETT training. Therefore in ETT training procedure the training units were shorter because the same rectal temperature increase were achieved earlier than during ET.

The following physiological indices: oxygen uptake (VO2), rectal (Tre), muscle (Tmusc.), and skin (Tsk) temperatures, level of dehydration (%DBwt), sweating rate (SR), plasma volume changes (%DPV) and haematocrit (Hct) in the course of CET as well as maximum oxygen uptake during ST were analysed.

The obtained results have shown that both the ET and ETT training programmes improved the efficiency of exercise thermoregulation however the ETT training with shorter training units gave the very similar results in exercise thermoregulation as the exercise training program, but is more sparing in utilisation of energy sources.

Key words: exercise thermoregulation, physical training, haematocrit, rectal, muscle and vastus lateralis temperatures.

Albertas Skurvydas, Jan Jaščanin, Jerzy Eider - Low Frequency Fatigue (LFF) of Quadriceps Muscle During Eccentric Exercise

Healthy men (age 25,4±1,75) (n=12) (weight 74,3±6.2) gave their informed consent to take part in experiments. Experiment was designed to examine changes in muscle force generating capacity after intermittent voluntary eccentric exercise. All voluntary and electrostimulation-induced muscle contractions were registered before work, 2 min (A2), 20 min (A20) and 24 h (A24) after work. Our main finding is that immediately after work there was statistically significant (p<0.05) decrease in force at low stimulation frequencies (10 and 20 Hz) as compared to that of 50 Hz. In addition, there is smaller decrease in maximum isometric voluntary force and jump height than in forces evoked by electrostimulation. At 20 min and 24 h after exercise there were no changes in contractile properties, evoked by electrostimulation.

Key words: skeletal muscle, eccentric exercise, low frequency fatigue, jumping, electrostimulation.

Albertas Skurvydas, Jan Jaščanin, Jerzy Eider - Verification of Hypotheses of “Myofibrillic“ and “Calcic“ post-tetanic Potentiation of Muscle

The aim of the study was to determine the effect of pattern of tetanic stimulation on the time course of subsequent twitches tension. The quadriceps muscle of healthy men (n=9) (aged 28-37) (weight 74,3±6.2) was studied. The following data were registered: the twitch force of the quadriceps muscle (Pt), muscle contraction time (CT) and half force relaxation time (RT) during twitch. Experimental protocol: a single twitch was evoked before and 500 ms, 1 s, 3 s, 5 s, 10 s, 30 s, 60 s after 5-s of 50 Hz stimulus train. Following muscle stimulation at 50 Hz there was a considerable increase (p<0.05) in Pt but RT decreased (p<0.05) and didn't recover after 60 s following electrostimulation. Thus, it has been established that in the period from 0.5 s to 3 s immediately after a brief muscle stimulation there occur considerable changes in Pt, CT and RT which should be considered when analysing Pt, CT and RT.

Key words: skeletal muscle, twitch contraction, post-tetanic potentiation

Wiesław Osiński, Tadeusz Mieczkowski - Effects of Physical Training on Weight Reduction, Body Composition and Motor Fitness in Overweight Women Aged 50-59 and 60-69

The main objective of this study was evaluation of the changes of basic somatic characteristics and motor fitness following the 18-day physical training with dietary intervention offered to women with moderate obesity. This program was carried out for 10 years for different groups of volunteers. 604 women aged 50-59 (BMI= 31,96 ± 4,46 kg/m2) and 102 women 60-69 years (BMI = 30,34 ± 5,18 kg/m2) were considered. The control group consisted of 2426 women aged 20-29 (BMI= 30,12 ± 5,00 kg/m2). The exercise programme involved, first of all, a variety of aerobic activities (5,5 hours daily); supplemented by a controlled diet.

The following conclusions were drawn: 1) similar positive effects of the programme on the reduction of body mass, BMI, body circumference and thickness of skinfolds were found irrespective of age, 2) smaller but positive changes in motor performance were found in the groups of older women , 3) the effects of exercise treatment on individual elements of the body weight, body composition and the tested elements of motor performance were varied.

Key words: Obesity, physical training, physical fitness

Stanisław Sterkowicz - Differences in the Specific Movement Activity of Men and Women Practising Judo

The purpose of this work was to characterize current tendencies in training and determine the differences between sports fighting of women (n=151) and men (n=241) during the Olympic Judo Tournament in Atlanta. The average age of the competitors was ca. 25 years.

The analysis of records of 527 fights made available to the author by International Judo Federation revealed the fact that women won less often than men before the time was over. In both groups mainly throws and the ability to force the opponent into penalty situations achieved the victory.

Women more often than men used holds and less often risky throws with a fall during the attack. In both groups the greater the frequency of a given type of attack, the lower the score, which shows that surprise, was a significant factor. Another characteristic feature of female athletes was the lower intensity of action during the attack and especially the frequency of penalties than in men who were better able to use the time of the fight.

On the basis of general data concerning sports participation of women and men in the competitions it is possible to prepare individual and group characteristics. The explanation of the differences in the fighting techniques between women and men lies probably in the level of their body build, physical and mental preparation.

Key words: movement activity, judo.

Edward Mleczko, Tadeusz Ambroży, Jan Szopa, Małgorzata Żychowska - The Influence of Environmental Pollution on Somatic and Functional Development of Children and Young People from the Cracow Region, Poland

The study was conducted in the Cracow region; a group of 4098 young people was tested, including 2021 girls and 2077 boys aged 7-18 , inhabiting the zone around Cracow which is one most severely polluted regions in Poland. The study involved checking the structural and functional traits, height, body mass and oxygen capacity. Motor abilities were measured indirectly through motor fitness tests. To determine how the level of environment pollution may impact upon biological development during the main periods of ontogenesis, the results were calculated for three age groups: 7-10, 11-14, 15-18. The participants were divided depending on the level of contamination in their place of abode : up to 80% above the Polish norm for protected areas, 80-150% above the norm and more than 150% above the norm. The results of earlier tests reveal that these groups did not differ significantly with the social and economical status of their families and motional activity of children (Ambroży 1997). The material was then analysed using basic statistical techniques so as to find the possible relationship between the high contamination level and reduced levels of: oxygen capacity, co-ordination abilities (especially those more complex ones) and those motor abilities, which were not correlated with somatic traits. No adverse effects of environment pollution on height, body mass and flexibility were found. Accordingly, the hypothesis of higher eco-sensitivity of functional traits rather than structural ones under the negative influence of natural environment could be proved.

Jan Szopa - About the Motority Structure - an Attempt to the System Approach

Problems involved in human motority are very complex. Due to presence of numerous internal and external factors the existing attempts to classify them and develop the finitions and standards are fraught with serious difficulties. Moreover, the knowledge required for the studies of human motion comes from several fields and has to be adapted to the specificity of physical education domain. These branches of knowledge, relatively young exist on the borderline with other spheres, and do not always provide the precise theoretical basis. The researchers have to make their own choice, which may lead to difficulties while communicating not only with the specialists from other fields, but also with those involved in the same research. As an extreme example one can mention here the notion of “motor traits”, widely used in Poland (attributing biological aspects to results of motor efficiency tests) or the concepts of “health — related fitness” and “performance related fitness” which appeared lately (mostly in USA). These problems will be discussed in more detail in further sections. Another important problem is the adequacy of testing, up till now identified with test reliability. Our communications may lead to many misunderstandings due to the absence of the reference system (so-called “golden standards”) and incorrect treatment of results of motor fitness tests (often well-chosen intuitively), regarded as the measure of their biological foundations.

Actually, it is a complicated problem, as “population” tests are usually supplemented — in undefined degree — with motority skill tests. That leads to misuse of qualifications of biological terms “development” or “genetic conditioning” in relation to the results of fitness tests.

In the present work we shall introduce the general concepts proposed by the “Polish motority school”, developed in 1988 — 1998 in academic centres of Cracow and Katowice.

These notions are based on biological foundations developed by a Polish scientist Z. Gilewicz (1964). We make a further attempt to use the developments in order to precisely define and systemise the notions on the scientific basis; as well as to work out the basis for checking the test validity. It is a well-established fact that every movement of a man is the effect of co-operation of biological basis (movement apparatus, energy sources, steering processes), of practical experiences (motor skills) and psychosocial environment (psyche, aims of movements, justification etc). The distinction between the motion potential side (to be able, to want, to know) and the effective side (movement process and its effects) also seems well founded. This first aspect is the domain of basic sciences, the second belongs to the field of physical education.

1. Potential side

The fundamental stage distinguished in proposed structure are predispositions, understood as relatively elementary structural and functional traits of an organism in a significant extent determined genetically, which can be measured using the techniques of basic sciences. In different combinations and in different degree they will determine the potential of human motion, so-called motor abilities. These will be discussed in more detail in the further sections.

Certain expressions call for further explanations. First of all, the expression “relatively elementary”: in spite of theoretical possibility of determining the fundamental and theoretically existing possibilities of qualification of most elementary traits (also gene structure), in practice implies the necessity of analysing a large number of traits in laboratory conditions, using very expensive apparatus. Furthermore, the tradition in many fields of knowledge (e.g. physiology) provides more adequate though more complex measures in relation to their elementary components. Thus this stage will involve the features differing in a degree of being “elementary”, such e.g. the response time, structure of muscle fibres or the effort heart rate. Some of thus defined “predispositions” (Szopa 1989, 1992, Szopa et.al. 1996, Szopa et.al. 1999), e.g. VO2 max, space orientation etc. will be transferred to the “higher” level of the structure, in consideration of their complexity (motor abilities). The expression “significant genetic determination” requires an explanation, too. It is well known that quantitative traits display various levels of genetic control (see Bouchard et.al 1997) — from very weak to comparatively strong. The word “significant” should therefore exclude the “traits” dependent on environmental conditions only - those having only external effect — while the list must not be restricted to the traits of strong genetic determination.

In the light of prevailing biological aspects, the predispositions can be categorised in four groups:

A) morphological — structural

These include the basic traits characterising the state of the motion system and these anatomical conditions which are major determinants of the motor efficiency. This is the groups where the genetic aspects are the strongest: length and width of the skeleton, body proportions (especially of osseous lever mainspring), number of myons, proportion of muscles fast fibres to slow fibres (FT/ST), muscles innervating, flexibility. We can also include here the traits of weaker genetic control, such as fat mass (negative predisposition), lean body mass LBM — etc.

B) energetic

These include the measurable [as far as possible] traits characterising efficiency of mechanisms releasing the energy for muscles work, such as: the level of phosphocreatinum, efficiency of glycolytic enzymes, of Krebs cycle, of respiratory chain, main parameters of circulatory system (heart volume, number of erythrocytes, haemoglobin rate) and respiratory parameters.

C) senso-motoric — control

These are based on neuro-physiological mechanisms of motion control. The most important point is that the centres situated in different levels of central nervous system (association and motorial centres of cortex, basis ganglia etc.) should co-operate, thus we get a pyramid-like system. That includes all kinds of motor response (Tarnecki et.al 1991): inborn reactions (generated by hereditary neurones systems), acquired motor response (conditional on development of motorial programmes in CNS centres and the efficiency of interneuronal connections), and postural movements — dependent on functioning of central co-ordinating programmes integrating the activity of optical, tactile, kinestetic and equilibrium receptors and of motorial centres. Leaving aside the motion control stages identified by biocybernetics, (programme, realisation, correction), we assume the following to be the basic predispositions:

— quality of receptors functioning (eyesight, hearing, touch, equilibrium, kinestetic feeling),

— efficiency of starting the existing motorial programmes,

— ability of neurons to create new neural networks,

— nerve-muscle co-ordination,

— ability to create new motorial programmes (the efficiency of motorial centres of brain cortex).

Considering the present state of knowledge it is difficult — or even impossible

— to directly measure the above-mentioned predispositions. Thus we are justified to resort to some available (or newly developed) psychomotor tests, which check:

— simple reaction time to optical, acoustic and tactile stimuli (co-ordination of receptors, centres and effectors within reflexive bows),

— complex reaction time (reaction to various stimuli expressed with different parts of body), also to moving objects,

— precision of movements (exactitude of movement),

— frequency of movements (the equilibrium of actuating and braking processes),

— rhythm of movements,

— rate of learning,

— accuracy of learning,

— persistence of learning.

D) psychological predispositions

These are involved in man's personality and as such are the subject of psychological studies. Without going into in details, we will signal only, that these include: temperament, motivation, will-power, intelligence — very important in attaining the definite motor results. Their “elementary” nature is questionable and complexity so considerable that they should be transferred to a higher level of the structure, that is motor abilities.

While discussing the predispositions, we must bear in mind that their importance manifest itself only during movement. It is obvious that every movement will require the predispositions from all of groups. However, depending on general characteristics of the type of movement (kind of muscular work, time of effort duration, intensity, complexity), and considering their common biological foundations we can group them in complexes called “motor abilities” (Szopa 1989, Szopa et.al 1996). This term and its range of application is a most controversial problem in kinesiology; since this notion is partly theoretical (Raczek 1990, Osiński 1990); while its complexity implies that it combines the potential and effective aspects of motion. No adequate tests for these abilities were available, (the former were called strength, speed, endurance and co-ordination abilities);

Important research work done in Poland in recent years, based on measurements of a large numbers (even 100) of primary parameters (predispositions), (Szopa and Latinek 1998, Szopa et.al. 1999) using the multidimensional statistical analysis (three stages factor analysis and taxonomic analysis) allowed to achieve the three main goals:

l Identifying the features most accurately characterising each group of predispositions (so called “golden standards”),

l Determining the interrelations between groups of predisposition, and thus also qualification of kinds and structures of motor abilities,

l Defining the methods and validity of testing the analysed abilities.

The immediate result, together with those obtained by the researchers from “Katowice school” (Mynarski 1998, Juras et.al 1998, Waśkiewicz et.al. 1998) was the ready definition of motor abilities, and the consequence — more distinct separation between the potential and effective aspects of motority and closer relations between motor abilities classification and their biological basis (thus the “complexity” was reduced).

We would propose the following definition:

“Motor abilities are groups of interrelated predispositions integrated by their common biological basis and movement backgrounds, measurable in a valid and comprehensive manner”.

In the light of this definition the motorial aspect — being a utilisation of ability is partially transferred to effective side, which makes the structure more clear.

Basing on the above criteria as well as obtained results, we can distinguish at present at least 10 kinds of motor ability grouped in four complexes:

1. Strength abilities — understood as readiness of an organism to overcome the external or its own body resistance in movements at low speed and under considerable load.

a) ability of developing the maximal absolute static strength. It determine the possibilities of developing the maximum moment of strenght (absolute and relative) by all muscles. Since thus defined ability is in fact impossible to measure, we would recommend the measurements of maximal moments of strenght for the largest groups of extensors during stabilised, isometric contraction, in laboratory conditions.

The “medicine ball throw backwards” proved to be the most valid indirect test.

Main predispositions involved in these abilities are: transverse area of muscles, proportions of osseous lever mainspring, inervation of each myons and anaerobic sources of energy. This ability shows rather weak genetic control and is easily trainable.

b) ability of developing the maximum, local static strength. It defines man's possibility of developing the maximum moments of strenght in each muscle or groups of muscles (e.g. knee extensors, shoulder flexors etc). This means (which is borne out by results of several works), that “local strength” is relatively independent of the general strength factor and its specificity depends on sex: in women it is greater in lower limbs, while in men — in the upper. Predispositions and immediate measurement of this ability are identical as in the case of absolute strength, while the most valid indirect tests are dynamometric measurements or “arm bent hanging”.

Recognising this ability as the separate factor may seem a bit surprising, it confirms the presence of both “general” and “specific” factors.

In case of features of weak genetic control this is of course possible, because the strength of muscle groups depends in a large degree on the environmental conditions.

2. Speed abilities — understood as the ability of the organism to utilise the maximum of energy in the shortest time possible (developing the greatest acceleration of the whole body or the body parts).

Three abilities can be distinguished in this group:

— ability of developing the maximum alactacid anaerobic power MAPA determining the possibility of the human to release the energy stored in muscular phosphocreatine. It enables one to attain the maximum power in the shortest time possible thus being the basis for short efforts of maximal intensity. It is obvious that main predispositions will be the number of FT, ability of storing of phosphocreatine and the efficiency of energy release.

Measurement of this ability is yet controversial, as the problem of time required for obtaining the maximum power is still open to some discussion. Most authors maintain that it takes place between the 5th and 8th second of maximum effort, therefore the “Wingate Test” (Inbar et. al. 1976) and measurement of magnitude of the maximum power seem most adequate. The required [though lower] level of test validity is provided by indirect tests, such as Margaria and Georgescu tests, or measurements of the magnitude of maximal anaerobic work (MWA) calculated as the product of long jump or vertical jump results and the body mass (Szopa et. al. 1996). Genetic control over this ability is significant, its trainability is limited, these tests should than be taken into consideration while recruiting young men to competetive sport.

— ability of developing the maximum lactacid anaerobic power MAPL, which defines efficiency of glycolytic processes (anaerobic glycolytic transformation). It provides the energy required during efforts of maximum intensity, lasting 40 sec on the average, and its main predispositions is again number of fast fibres and efficiency of glycolytic cycle. The recommended laboratory test is again the “Wingate Test” and measurement of the total executed work. Indirect measurement is difficult, because it should be the test of maximum intensity and time of duration about 30 sec (e.g. 200-300 m. run, 50 m. swimming etc.). We should bear in mind however, that the number of components that may impact the final results of such test is greater (including lactacid and alactacid MAP elements, acid-alkaline equilibrium of blood and VO2 max.). Thus it involves the measurement of “capacity” of anaerobic sources (anaerobic capacity), rather than of their power — results of these tests will not be expressed in the units of power, anyway. Genetic control over this ability appears relatively low, while trainability is considerable.

We wish to emphasise that “energetic abilities” have been recognised by physiologists of work for a long time already — including them in our “set” is simply the confirmation of well-known facts and integration of motority theory into basic sciences.

— ability of fast muscle mobilisation.

This ability is most difficult to identify, because it involves energetic and co-ordination predisposition thus making it most complex, as the straight reference to biomechanical parameters of muscles work (e.g. speed of developing of maximum power) does not seem adequate. It is a most complicated property of the organism providing for quick stimulation of large numbers of myons (inervation, activity of steering centres) but also for brake application and energy release. Laboratory measurement of this ability could be time at achievement of maximum power during Wingate Test or isometric contraction in conditions of effort repeatability. Most adequate indirect tests are “envelope run” and “shuttle — run 10 ´ 5 m”, genetic conditioning is rather strong — and trainability is moderate (Szopa and Prus 1997, Prus and Szopa 1997).

3. Endurance abilities defining the possibilities of organism to execute prolonged muscular work without signs of fatigue in efforts of submaximal intensity. Including effectiveness of the systems of circulation and respiration — corresponding to “cardio — respiratory — endurance”, as it is the English term. Two distinct factors should be considered:

— ability of maximum oxygen uptake (VO2 max).

It determines the efficiency of mechanisms of oxygen utilisation in muscles.

The number of predispositions involved in these abilities is exceptionally large: parameters of heart work, the composition of blood (number of erythrocytes, quantity of Hb), number of mitochondria, efficiency of Krebs Cycle enzymatic systems and of respiratory chain, efficiency of respiratory system etc. The most important factor here is doubtless the respiratory chain (substrate oxidation).

The only reliable measuring techniques here are immediate measurements based on the analysis of gases breathed in and out (O2/CO2) in the condition of gradual effort lasting “till refusal” (descriptions in every physiology book). All indirect methods (long time cyclo-ergometric tests, Astrand Test whether Margaria Test) have only indicatory character and - if based on regression lines or on population material may involve considerable error in individual estimation. Our investigations reveal (Chwała 1997, Szopa et.al. 1999) that the Cooper's tests is most adequate . Genetic control over this abilities is weak while the trainability is subject to individual variations (Bouchard et.al.1997).

For lucidity of the discourse we have to remind that the ability of maximum oxygen consumption is the measure of “power” of oxygenic processes (aerobic power), not their “capacities” (aerobic capacity), which manifests as the ability for prolonged work. It involves mostly the second ability identified here, that is the ability of muscle resistance to fatigue.

On one hand it is based on the structure of muscle fibres (superiority of fibres ST), on the other — on mechanisms of acid — alkaline equilibrium — and on psychical traits.

Test or the decrease of maximum strength during isometric contraction. Most valid indirect tests are “arm bent hanging” and “sit-ups”.

As it can be seen, these strength and endurance abilities display two — factors structure, while speed abilities involve three factors.

It seems that those 7 motor abilities mentioned here having the structural — energetic background can be somehow related to “conditional — abilities”, however it can be only clearly specified how these should be tested using scientific methods (this problem was partly identified by physiologists). These abilities must not be regarded as quite separate groups, because they can often involve the same predispositions, though in different proportions. It would be difficult to determine the strength of genetic control over this abilities, because such studies have not been conducted till now.

The above list of abilities supplement the list of those with entirely different backgrounds (functioning of CNS and of organs of sense) completes the list. These are the following:

4. Co-ordination abilities, understood as the ability of an individual to perform an accurate, precise movement in changing external conditions.

According to the latest works (Juras et.al. 1998, Waśkiewicz et.al. 1998, Szopa and Latinek 1998) they involve the following:

— ability of space orientation, understood as co-operation of receptors and nervous centres responsible for quick and exact reaction to changes in body position or body parts position in space or in relation to other objects. The predispositions here are: sensibility of receptors (optical, acoustic, tactile, equilibrium, kinestetic feeling) and speed of starting the existing motorial programmes by motorial centres. It is however very difficult to point out any adequate tests allowing for precise measurements of this ability; those used till now (cross-shaped apparatus, computer tests WCS etc.) measure rather predispositions (Juras and Waśkiewicz 1998), while population tests (see Mekota and Blahuš 1983) do not fulfil the validity criteria. It seems that at present the research should be restricted to investigations of predisposition, at the same time working towards the development of adequate measurement tools. Genetic control some of them seems to be rather strong (Szopa et.al. 1985); trainability is rather limited - so it should be the element in recruitment tests for competetive sport.

— Ability of motor adaptation, understood as relatively generalised and fixed condition to provide for advisable programming, corrections or also reconstruction of motorial activity adapt to constantly changing and not foreseen situations, involving also the reaction of an individual while directly faced by an adversary. Apart from indispensable receptors, this ability involves the compilation of the elements of control, finding and starting definite motorial programmes — (e.g. fields 2, 4, 6 in motorial cortex, lateral cerebellum areas).

We have to bear in mind, however, that this definition is rather general — it must be so because otherwise we would have to define separate predispositions as abilities. In this case the predispositions are: the quality of motorial programmes and steering centres, number of interneuronal connections, depth of vision, anticipation (completely acquired and learnt), etc.

No synthetic tests checking this ability is available now — it is doubtful anyway whether such tests could be developed. For research purposes we recommend testing the predispositions and running the tests of complex motor reactions in laboratory conditions.

As far as the motor adaptation ability is concerned, there are no data on genetic control. Judging however by results of research work concerning predispositions (Szopa and Jaworski 1998), the genetic conditionings is rather weak while trainability is considerable.

— Ability of movement learning (movement capabilities)

That means speed, exactitude and persistence of learning new movements, however not in qualitative, but quantitative terms. A distinct feature of this ability is that it involves the existing motorial programmes in smaller degree, while it relies mainly on their durability and correction. Apart from specific CNS properties, the predispositions here are: receptors functions, especially kinetics feeling, eyesight, hearing and efficiency of association centres of brain cortex with regards to the speed of motorial programmes correction. We are fully aware that in many human behaviours (including competetive sport) there is not enough time for learning during sports competitions -the ability of motor adaptation becomes the decisive factor. This ability has its roots partly in individual experience (often automated) — it is therefore the function of the whole movements control process, not only of its fragments. Definitely, it is an acquired ability.

As far as the possibilities of testing are concerned, the opinions tend to differ. Older tests were based on exercises well known to participants (being even the part of school curricula); moreover the evaluation was either subjective, or expressed in age categories (tests of: Johnsons, Johnsons — Metheny, Ozierecki's). They did not have definite validity — even intuitive. The results of our investigations (Szopa and Wątroba 1992, Szopa and Latinek 1998) show that one should use tests involving motion sequences, not learned or investigated before. Whether the measurement will be valid or whether the evaluation will be done by an experienced coach does not seem to be of any importance: e.g. standardised tests proposed Latinek (1995), have a high degree of correlation with subjective estimations.

Motorial capabilities, as correlated with non — verbal intelligence, seem to be strongly determined genetically - therefore these should be considered while recruiting young people to sport - it is still more important that these are the basis for acquiring motor skills.

Summing up, one can ascertain, that the “list” of motor abilities includes 10 types of abilities - all of them should be the subject of rigorous research. These abilities are summarised in table 1.

In the light of these considerations, the problem of possible existence so-called “co-ordination” or else of “sports- talent” would arise. Though intuitively we would opt for its existence, yet it seems that this notion should encompass all potential aspects, particularly the co-ordination skills.

The last “element” involved in the potential side are motor skills. Though they are based on motor capabilities (involving the ability of learning) and acquired abilities (with no genetic background) - they are internalised (relatively permanent movement programmes in CNS) so we count them among potential aspects on the same level with motor abilities, as shown in the diagram below.

Testing motor skills is the most difficult problem , as it is necessary to apply a separate tests for each ability while the estimation involves comparing the activity with the reference pattern. Unfortunately, these patterns are seldom stable (e.g. sports), sometimes not easy to qualify (e.g. the style of individual champions): in such case objective measurement is difficult and should — in our opinion — be referred to some sort of a “standard style' based on the estimation movement efficiency i.e. its agreement with intentional aim, and not on the course of the activity (e.g. repeatability or movement precision). While evaluating motor skills we have to bear in mind that the required level might be obtained provided the already existing level of motor abilities is adequate, which is difficult to recognise during measurements.

In the light of these considerations, we can easily state that the effective aspects will involve the effects of man's motor activities, thus they would mean the manifestation of potential side (abilities and skills) in concrete human movements or motor activities. That is called “motor fitness”, being the individual feature. That means this, that an individual can have very good results in tests based on endurance abilities, and weak results in speed abilities tests etc. (which is a rule in most competitive sports). The results must not be therefore added up or averaged, since the averaged results (sometimes referred to as general fitness) make an “empty set” and do not give any information about the structure of fitness of an individual..

As far as the techniques for motor efficiency testing are concerned, we can distinguish two methodological approaches:

The first is investigation of different effects of motor activity only, e.g. in view individual fitness for the given profession or sport, or the usage of battery of tests qualifying the level of each motor ability, thus defining the motor “potential” of an individual.

The second approach may involve certain errors due to testing abilities by means of skills, yet it appears to be inevitable in populational studies. We would, therefore, recommend, this type of testing, provided those are duly verified for their validity. In hitherto existing test batteries (ICSPFT, “Eurofit” etc.) the validity was often confused with test repeatability, which resulted in a free choice in selection of tests. As the best example one can mention here “dimensions” and “factors” of motority proposed by “Eurofit” Authors (1988). “Dimensions” included speed, flexibility and equilibrium (!), while “factors” are e.g. functional strength, trunk strength, static strength, functional strenght (which strength is not functional?). Why trunk strength should be a factor, while that of lower limbs — should not? The “agility run” is a test, not a factor, but “agility” is not recognised as a motor ability — it was not confirmed by any analysis! Explosive strength should belong to speed abilities (alactacid MAP and speed of muscles mobilisation), speed of movements and flexibility are predispositions, and not factors (abilities) etc.

The notion “physical fitness” we understand in a broader meaning, as ability and skills of man allowing the execution of various motorial acts. This is the commandos or pentathlon sportsman's fitness, rather than that of a marathon runner. The latter last has only high motor fitness based on endurance abilities.

Estimation of motor fitness and physical fitness is additionally complicated by the fact, that apart from co-ordination ability, the results of tests are in large degree dependent on somatic parameters not only in progressive period, but also after its end. Apart from competitive sports where only results count, such estimation must take into account these relations making the results relative (removing the influence of development advancement) at least in categories of morphological age — not calendar years, so that it could be used for comparison between individuals. It is of primary importance while evaluating school children and in classification of children for sports. Such standards were developed in Poland in 1934 by J. Mydlarski; this work was continued at the Warsaw centre (Trześniowski 1964) and Cracow centres — (Żak 1991, Szopa et.al. 1996.

The last problem we have to discuss is the idea of dividing physical efficiency into “health — related fitness” (HRF) and “performance - related fitness” (PRF); this idea has become increasingly popular in recent years. The first of them relates fitness to health is very convenient, since the researchers ( and also politicians and financial centres) will focus on health in its wider meaning. It is a beautiful and useful idea, however is it well-founded and justified? Is its scope and relation to PRF defined correctly? We shall present below the main critical points, at the same time we will propose a different approach — already presented in this paper . In our opinion it is more lucid, consistent and logical.

Let us start, however, with critical remarks:

1. Though the sense of adopting the HRF does not give rise to any doubts (at least in this sense- the state of internal organs and quality of metabolic processes are doubtless connected with health), its components are questionable (Bouchard and Sheppard 1994, Bouchard et. al. 1997). These are those most frequently pointed out:

— morphological components and composition of the body, adipose tissue and its distribution, bone density, flexibility,

— muscular components: power, strength, endurance (?)

— motor components (?): agility, co-ordination, equilibrium, speed of movements,

— cardio-respiratory components-: aerobic capacity, efficiency of hearts, lungs, blood pressure

— metabolic components: tolerance of glucose, sensibility to insulin, lipids metabolism, characteristics (?) of substrate oxidation.

The list of components is by no means complete; in other works the list is limited, too (Wuest and Bucher 1991, Skinner and Oja 1994,). It involves the build and functions of the organism as related to motion. However is it really full and valid ?

Let us take a better look:

— among morphological components such an important feature as muscle structure and inervation, efficiency of nervous system etc are missing

— strength, power, endurance are not muscular components — this are effects of muscular work. “Components” are muscles structure, their inervation and blood supply, ability of quick contraction, of developing maximum strength, resistance to fatigue etc. Strength, power and endurance are physical concepts, having their definitions and units (power — W, strength — N, endurance — of what?) — We must not use the definitions taken from the basic sciences changing their meaning!

— the list of metabolic components is not full: why do we consider the characteristics of substrate oxidation, at the same leaving out the analogous ones for glikolisis, alactacid MAP, acid — alkaline equilibrium — etc?

— Why “sensibility to insulin”, and not “sensibility to adrenaline”, tyroxini etc?

— motor components involve motorial effects, not the state of an organism! Agility as a trait (ability) does not exist, co-ordination means whole processes of movement control, equilibrium and speed of movements are effects of working of CNS and of organs of sense.

It can be seen, that classification this is inconsistent, incomplete, including the elements of different origin and different level of generality. The majority of listed components are predispositions or motor abilities: this approach we introduced in the first parts of the present study.

2. The problem of testing HRF. In most proposal such tests have to be — at least partly — tests of motor fitness. Docherty (1996) and Osiński (1998) emphasise that causes that borders between HRF and PRF, get confused, which is the consequence of the absence of an adequate theoretical doctrine and of the main intention. These tests are not sufficiently valid (in relation to HRF), as they involve a number of motor skills.

3. Bringing PRF only to securing sport success (test results or sports results) would have some point, if one did not mix them with abilities already related to HRF (e.g. agility, functional strength, speed, endurance).

Summing up. it appears that the idea of HRF was developed for utilitarian, not for scientific purposes. In our opinion the comprehensive approach suggested here is much more valuable as it clearly distinguishes the potential side (just HRF) from the effective one (PRF).

Włodzimierz Starosta - Movements Symmetrization - a New Concept of Motor Learning in Sport

Symmetrical structure of human body allows to perform asymmetrical and symmetrical extremities movement. However, most people use mainly right hand, what could be an effect of social tradition and genetic background. Both factors probably causes a right — hand dominance in human motorics. The problem what kind of movement, asymmetrical or symmetrical, is more profitable for man has not been solved yet. Since alternative attitudes to this problem not include many social, biological, physiological and psychological aspects of the human motorics, a new concept has been developed to create the better movements of the upper extremities. In contrast to other theories the concept prefers interrelation between both asymmetrical and symmetrical elements in the human motoric system. In practice, the interrelation is individually adjusted to the subject, according to his experience in movement. The concept is based, therefore, on a procedure of symmetrization of movements, that is on the equalising process of efficiency for left and right hands with a preference for an individual dominance the one of it. Starosta (1975, 1984, 1990) and others authors showed that the symmetrization process improves the coordination of movement and its efficiency, quality and accuracy. It has also been showed that recovery of the exhausted hand can be accelerated, when the other hand performs some exercise. Recent cross-sectional study proved that 20% of judoist who were under symmetrization process during preparation for Olympic Games of 1980 won over 50% of medals, including 6 gold among 7 possible. I conclude, therefore, that the symmetrization process is beneficial for sport performance, working and everyday movements practice

Key words: movement, teaching, symmetrization, new concept, sport, laterality.

Stanisław Żak - The Necessity of Relative Estimation of Motor Fitness

The level of person's motor fitness may be evaluated in two ways: either in “absolute” terms - through tests results, without considering the individual predispositions or in “relative” terms whereby the scoring depends on the basic predispositions (results of arm and shoulder strength tests per unit of body mass or lean body mass). The first of these tests is used in high-performance sports, while school grades and other evaluations where the motor skill is treated as manifestation of motor fitness should be based on relative approach. This view is closely linked with the changing opinion as to the aims and objectives of physical education. The opinion evolved from the concept of body shaping, body up-bringing right to the programme of body-care upbringing (Osiński 1996). Parallel to that view was the process of school assessment and scoring of motor skills in school children. Several tests for relative evaluation were designed to serve that purpose (review by Żak, 1991a). The method of indirect measurement became immensely popular when the concept of physical training was abandoned and then replaced with the “physical education and upbringing”. Apart from current aims, the latter involves prospective aims as well. In view of thus specified goals, the only reasonable solution is that only those tests should be used at schools which motivate the students to make further effort to improve their fitness.

The current views concerning the physical education at schools are of great interest to researches from the field of biology, natural science or social science; as well as those engaged in relative assessment of motor fitness- teachers, doctors, health centres, education institutes and parents. The main point here is developing such groups of tests that would take into account the physical conditions and the level of advancement of individual motor predispositions, would be simple to perform and assess and would allow for most objective diagnosis of individual efforts. Besides, the requirement of test adequacy should be met. Close relations between the motor skill components and the level of somatic conditions during the period of rapid individual development have to be emphasised.

The research work on how the basic morphological parameters (body height and mass, muscle mass, fat mass) impact on the person's motor performance how the level of somatic development influences motor fitness of an individual is well documented in Polish literature on the subject (Przewęda 1985; Haleczko 1989; Raczek 1989; Żak 1991a). This problem was also thoroughly investigated abroad, for example by the International Committee on Physical Tests Standardisation and the European Committee for Sport. Most research work was focused on establishing the relations between the basic somatic traits and separate motor fitness components. The main shortcoming was that those relations were established and interpreted using the linear regression models, while the linear relations are rarely found in nature. Most often we encounter some optimal parameters, usually nearing the mean values. This might be the consequence of the stabilising selection (Szarski, 1976), most commonly found in natural conditions, whereby the preference is given to individuals in whom most features are present in average degree; i.e. the individuals most typical for the given species.

Most recent research (Osiński, 1988, Żak 1991a, 1994) seems to confirm this view. Only the results of static (absolute) strength tests yield a linear relation to the body size. Most relations are multi-directional; even in such an extent that we are not able to establish the `standard values' within the real and feasible limits taking into account three features only: body height and mass, and the amount of fat. That means that each relation should be considered separately; optimal fat content, body height and body mass may be in different relation to the results of speed ability tests. These relations may be still different in endurance or co-ordination tests (Osiński, 1988).

The reliability of curve relationships, described with the third or second order polynomials is further questioned by relatively low determining factors (apart from body mass and its components and the static muscle strength). The observed relations are curve- shaped mainly at the boundaries of their variability intervals.

Taking into account all the factors that determine the motor fitness in humans (including non-morphological factors as well), it seems that holistic approach to human motor abilities is more reasonable than the traditional, phenomenological one. Its rationale can be found not only in bio-mechanical conditions of the motor system, but also in greater levels of individual advancement and biological maturity. That is borne out by the variations of correlation coefficients and the curve profiles for different age groups (Żak, 1991a).

As the relations between the somatic traits and the motor test performance (mainly energetic) grow weaker after the puberty period, it may seem that the level of individual development — most strongly manifested during the adolescence period — gradually loses its importance, giving way to genetic and environmental conditions (mainly related to the person's physical activity (Żak, 1991a).

Precise measurements and evaluation of motor performance must take into account both the level of somatic predispositions and the performance itself. It is relatively easy to determine the level of motor fitness in the category of external efficiency (test results); while it is nearly impossible and impracticable to consider all the predispositions, because of their number and type. Therefore, it is recommended to search for most representative features, such that they would jointly and adequately determine the level of individual development.

One of the techniques applied to remove the influence of the individual development level is assuming the body height to be its measure. That approach was used in the works by Trześniowski (1981), Siniarska (1984), Malina (1984), Szopa and Żak (1986), Szopa and Sakowicz (1987). These works present the comparison between the population or group members as to their motor fitness levels, at the same time the influence of body mass was eliminated; thus only the methodological approach would be different. Osiński (1988), Haleczko (1989) and Wątroba (1990) went still further and developed the regression lines to compute the expected results of motor fitness tests for the accepted somatic parameters. We have to bear in mind, however, that these methods are not very precise and thus obtained results should be treated as an approximation only. It is mainly because we disregard the fact that the level of somatic parameters is the consequence not only of the development level, but the genetic conditions specific for the given feature, too.

So far the attempts to determine the influence of individual development level (expressed as the morphological age calculated from three components: number of calendar years, body height and lean body mass) were made only in the works of Żak (1986, 1991a, 1994). That was a more comprehensive and adequate assessment than through individual somatic components, which can be used as fairly correct measure of biological age.

The morphological age may vastly differ between individuals in all age categories during the period of progressive development (table 1 and 2). Its variability in the same age groups (in terms of calendar years) may in extreme cases be 7 years. Let us use a more illustrative example: among 14-years old we can find some children whose morphological age ranges from 11 to 17.

It seems that morphological age is a major determinant of motor fitness level (of energetic source) and agility both in girls and boys (Fig 1, 2). That is probably due to considerable variability of somatic traits during the stage of progressive development. When this differentiation is treated as subsequent stages of morphological maturity, we can consider the kinetics of motor performance changes (the same as in the category of calendar years); which varies in certain fractions identified with regards to the development level (Żak, 1991a). We have to emphasise that the share of the somatic factor in their differentiation is not uniform and is manifested more in boys than in girls. Most considerable influence can be found in the results of static strength tests, speed abilities tests, endurance in running and agility — though in a smallest extent. The morphological factor becomes more pronounced in the period of adolescence — as the result of largest variability of somatic traits during that stage. That seems understandable and does not call for any extra explanation — it is however worth remembering for practical reasons. The kinetics of changes of analysed motor effects defined in morphological age categories vastly resembles the pattern of motor performance variability determined on the basis of chronological age for the whole population. Quotient ratios of intergroup variance to the overall variance are greater in all age categories when the morphological factors are considered rather than the number of calendar years. The arithmetic means for given years summarised for one category would yield similar values (Żak 1991a). That decidedly proves that the development level is predominant for shaping the motor fitness in children and young men, especially during adolescence. Therefore, this factor must be considered, especially in school education practice, through using the relative techniques of motor fitness evaluation and (as far as possible) the physical activities should be arranged such that they should be run in groups which are homogeneous in terms of somatic development, not the calendar age. We realise that such arrangements might be difficult in school work organisation, yet we emphasise this necessity. That is mainly so during the progressive development, including the period of adolescence which is specially dynamic and proceeds differently in individuals. The rate of individual development in those getting mature earlier is much faster and more intensive than in those who reach their maturity later.

Among the four methods for determining the developmental age (bone age, teeth, sex development, body growth), the most objective and adequate is the method of bone age assessment. However, because of legal conditions and organisational requirements this method cannot be widely applied. The simplest, most adequate and reliable method is therefore determining the morphological age, commonly used in school and sport training practice as well as in research work. It is a correct approach since somatic and motor development proceed in the same direction during adolescence; while the development of the structure - as it was mentioned earlier- is ahead of functional development. Besides, thus calculated morphological age combines the genetic factors (the influence of genes controlling body height) and developmental factors (dynamics of changes) - which is the best way to express the motor fitness in relative terms, since it is determined by these two types of factors.

In the light of facts presented here, the critical approach to uniform scoring for age groups in motor fitness tests seems fully justified. This is a very important problem, since the motor fitness scoring is usually done in categories of calendar years. In spite of its serious shortcoming this method is still persistently used in many countries while designing modern test batteries (ICSPFT, Eurofit and others).

The theory of human motority allows to distinguish at least two types of standards. The first is based on arithmetic means and allows to determine the position of a child against the population — it means comparing a person with his or her contemporaries (population — related standard, or the statistic representation of the population). The major shortcoming of such standards is that individual development processes are neglected (such as the time of reaching adolescence). Thus comparing yearly measurements of motor performance to standards which do not account for individual variations seems useless, from the point of view of school practice. An individual reaching the subsequent stages of maturity later may in the earlier periods give poorer motor test performance than the mean for the whole population while in the later period he may well make up for this delay. On the other hand, while referring to health-related fitness we must not agree with the assumption that the mean value should be the standard (as in the case of health conditions or moral criteria). The desired values (the best which can be achieved) should be the standards here — so called target standards. We have to bear in mind, however, that though in theory such standard may seem perfect, yet for practical purposes they are infeasible in certain degree since such standards would involve achieving the best results thus removing the individual differences, which is quite impossible (for genetic reasons as well as others). It seems one should look for half-way solutions, introducing for example some population — related standards yet based on tests results from homogenous groups of individuals (having the level of development). When we check the morphological age of participants before the yearly motor fitness tests, then the scoring would be “free” from the bias of genetically determined rate of individual development (somatic predisposition), though it is only a simplified picture. This hypothesis is borne out by works of Milicerowa (1968), Wolański (1983), Przewęda (1985), and others, who treated the level of motor performance as the combination of somatic and functional development. We have to bear in mind, however, that both the growth rate and the final body size, and in turn also trainability, are genetically programmed. The tables prepared by Żak (1991b), taking into account the morphological age of tested individuals in their ontogenesis are also based on arithmetic means, yet the existing differences between the results are in large extent `free' from the influence of somatic development levels.

Unfortunately, in spite of numerous arguments for returning to relative methods of scoring, already used in the past (Mydlarski, 1934), still the scoring scales are developed which are based on calendar years only (such as Chromiński's test used in Polish schools or Eurofit). These tests are in opposition to biological rules and the desired school practices, as they give preference to young people with better physical predispositions thus discriminating the average individuals or those with poorer morphological parameters.

Such approach produces very serious and negative effects. Recent research works (Żak 1994) reveal that, according to teachers, students with “delayed” development have little confidence in themselves and experience the feelings of loneliness. Unlike them, tall students or those reaching maturity earlier attempt to subordinate others and are more aggressive, particularly boys. Shorter students or those reaching maturity later display more features indicating their being not adapted to society. More biologically developed students will more quickly adapt to new situations, thanks to better physical conditions.

These facts and opinions agree well with the results presented by other authors. Hurlock (1985) made an observation that more physically active , hence more agile, children can better concentrate, are tougher, have better psychological strength, are more confident while less agile children often entertain the feeling of helplessness. Other research works indicate there is a close connection between children's physical activity and social acceptance and adaptation (Porębska 1982; Hurlock 1985). Feelings of inferiority, jealousy, aggression towards adults, rejection, dependence, shyness, boredom are commonly identified as consequences of lower motor fitness in children. We have to admit that social and psychological consequences of these feelings may be even more dangerous than the physical ones. They may warp the children's psychology and continue long after the backwardness has been made up for. Further research should focus on so called psychological age, about which little is known and social maturity — an aspect hardly ever mentioned in any theoretical considerations relating to human fitness.

Summing up, let us once again emphasise the main points. First of all, while evaluating the students' motor performance we have to remember the basic biological laws, whereby the structure, maturity and functions are inseparable. Secondly, the relation between the biological advancement level and motor fitness should be treated as having its roots in nature; therefore this factor should be always considered, especially in physical education at schools, by using relative techniques of motor fitness scoring. The latest choice of activities in designing a test was made Szopa (1988, 1989); while the tests was adapted to account for the categories of morphological age by Żak (1991a). The measure of its efficiency is evaluation of its basic function - producing a system of stimuli positively motivating individuals (students) to systematic exercise, which is indispensable for their development. Positive motivation is necessary for individuals to obtain their optimal motor fitness levels.

Thirdly, we have to draw our attention to the fact that according to our system of values, fitness is considered in biological and health related categories, as well as cultural and social ones. These two aspects are combined by manifested physical activity. The psychological factors have to remembered, too. Each movement ought to be considered as the manifestation of human psycho-motor activity.

As far as psychological and social aspects are concerned, extensive physical activity allows to develop attitudes necessary in adult life; such as emotional balance, psychic strength, resistance to stress, psychological adaptability to changing conditions. Besides, it promotes responsibility, self-discipline, persistence in pursuing the aims, and helps to acquire social norms and to internalise the cultural values (Strzyżewski, 1990).

Social merits of physical activity are that the body is a value in itself. By building prestige and authority and promoting acceptance the individual finds his place in the society. Those values are also the consequence of factors which bring certain benefits, though rarely seen. Fitness is a vital element of our personality, a distinguishing factor, bespeaking of our culture and lifestyle. Fitness can vastly enrich human life, providing new opportunities for pleasure or active recreation. It facilities interpersonal contacts, offers new ways of spending time, helps young men to find themselves in a group.

In the light of these facts, more intense and effective stimulation while working with students whose development is delayed (no matter whether it should be the consequence of genetic conditions or growth dynamics) is of primary importance as the element of health care and the means of providing for correct and multi-directional development, involving biological, psychological and social aspects. The organisational and methodological implications will not be further discussed in the present study, as these belong to the theory of physical education, a branch of pedagogic science. We have to emphasise, however, that these objectives are impossible to pursue without objective evaluation.

Elżbieta Budkiewicz, Renata Mroczek - Bibliography of Contains of the Journal “Antropomotoryka” (Studies in Human Motoricity) for Years 1989 - 1999)

1. Bawelski M., Cempla J., Klimek A., Kobosko M. 1998. Rozwojowe i potreningowe zmiany wydolności anaerobowej u dziewcząt i chłopców w wieku 12-13 lat. Antropomotoryka, 17, 13-162.

2. Blachura L., Emmerich J. 1990. Poziom progu przemian anaerobowych u mężczyzn o wysokiej i niskiej wydolności tlenowej. Antropomotoryka, 3, 41-51.

3. Blachura L., Emmerich J. 1992. Anaerobic Threshold Level in Men with High and Low Aerobic Efficiency. Antropomotoryka. Studies in Human Motoricity, 7, 69-77.

4. Blachuš P. 1992. Motor Abilities as Latent Variables. Antropomotoryka. Studies in Human Motoricity, 7, 155-159.

5. Bora P. 1996. Wpływ ukierunkowanego treningu na poziom wybranych predyspozycji koordynacyjnych oraz nauczanie techniki skoku wzwyż studentów Akademii Wychowania Fizycznego. Antropomotoryka, 14, 99-109.

6. Bora P. 1997. Wpływ ćwiczeń koordynacyjnych i techniki na strukturę uwarunkowań skoku wzwyż. Antropomotoryka, 16, 89-102.

7. Budkiewicz E., Mroczek R. 1996. Bibliografia zawartości czasopisma “Antropomotoryka” za lata 1989-1996. Antropomotoryka, 14, 147-155.

8. Budkiewicz E., Mroczek R. 1999. Bibliografia zawartości czasopisma “Antropomotoryka” za lata 1989-1999. Antropomotoryka, 19-20, ......

9. Cempla J. 1989. Biegowy test oceny progów metabolicznych i maksymalnego poziomu adaptacji wysiłkowej. Antropomotoryka, 1, 77-92

10. Cempla J. 1991. Cykloergometryczny test oceny progów metabolicznych. Antropomotoryka, 5, 57-68.

11. Cempla J. 1993. Porównanie progów metabolicznych wyznaczonych w testach o różnym tempie narastania obciążenia. Antropomotoryka, 10, 115-125.

12. Cempla J. 1993. Poziom progów metabolicznych u chłopców w wieku 18 lat. Antropomotoryka, 9, 59-67.

13. Cempla J. 1994. Poziom progów wentylacyjnych i maksymalnego obciążenia wysiłkowego u studentów i studentek AWF w Krakowie. Antropomotoryka, 11, 153-168.

14. Cempla J. 1995. Porównawcze badania kosztu fizjologicznego biegów o różnej intensywności u dziewcząt i chłopców w okresie dojrzewania. Antropomotoryka, 12, 13, 45-57.

15. Cempla J. 1996. Rozwojowe zmiany poziomu wybranych parametrów fizjologicznych towarzyszących skrajnemu obciążeniu wysiłkowemu u 13-15 letnich dziewcząt i chłopców. Antropomotoryka, 15, 39-53.

16. Cempla J., Bawelski M. 1998. Rozwojowe zmiany wskaźnika obrazującego relację beztlenowej do tlenowej mocy wysiłku. Antropomotoryka, 18, 49-56.

17. Cempla J., Szul R. 1997. Przebieg wybranych wysiłkowych reakcji fizjologicznych w specyficznym teście laboratoryjnym u kolarzy górskich. Antropomotoryka, 16, 113-125.

18. Chytráčková J. 1996. The Motor Performance Conditioned by Selected Physical Characteristics of 6-14 Years Old Children. Antropomotoryka, 14, 17-20.

19. Czabański B., Świadek R. 1995. Pomiar uzdolnień ruchowych w zakresie odtwarzania rytmu. Antropomotoryka, 12, 13, 3-12.

20. Dębczyńska I., Starosta W. 1996. Dominujący kierunek przy wykonywaniu ćwiczeń z obrotami u dzieci i uprawiających różne dyscypliny sportu. Antropomotoryka, 15, 29-37.

21. Drabik J. 1989. Problem okresów sensytywnych w rozwoju wytrzymałości tlenowej na tle uwarunkowań somatycznych. Antropomotoryka, 2, 73-88.

22. Dutkiewicz W. 1993. Phenomena of secular changes of physical and motor development in children and adolescents. Antropomotoryka, 10, 35-56.

23. Garbaciak W., Raczek J. 1993. Typy rozwoju zdolności motorycznych u dziewcząt i chłopców w wieku 11-14 lat. Antropomotoryka, 9, 45-57.

24. Gosk A., BorodulinsNadzieja L., Pietraszkiewicz T., Jankowska E. 1992. Próba oceny współzależności między cechami somatycznymi a niektórymi wskaźnikami fizjologicznymi. Antropomotoryka, 8, 63-73.

25. Grygiel E. 1989. Kształtowanie się niektórych parametrów sprawności psychomotorycznej w warunkach długotrwałego wysiłku fizycznego. Antropomotoryka, 2, 103-112.

26. Haleczko A. 1989. Biologiczne aspekty ewaluacji sprawności motorycznej dzieci w wieku szkolnym - wybrane zagadnienia metodologiczne. Antropomotoryka, 1, 19-36.

27. Haleczko A. 1992. Biological Aspects in the Evaluation of School Children's Motor Fitness. Antropomotoryka. Studies in Human Motoricity, 7, 143-154.

28. Haleczko A., Socha T. 1993. Struktura somatyczna zawodniczek z punktu widzenia wymagań funkcjonalnych siedmioboju. Antropomotoryka, 9, 87-105.

29. Ignasiak Z., Sławińska T. 1996. Relatywne porównanie rozwoju wybranych cech morfofunkcjonalnych dzieci miejskich Tunezji i Polski. Antropomotoryka, 14, 41-53.

30. Ignasiak Z., Wlazło E. 1996. Rozwój fizyczny i motoryczny dzieci wiejskich w świetle zróżnicowanego poziomu integracji niewerbalnej. Antropomotoryka, 14, 27-39.

31. Iskra J. 1996. Z badań nad związkiem między biegiem w wymuszonym rytmie przez niskie przeszkody a poziomem sprawności motorycznej i wybranymi parametrami budowy somatycznej dzieci 10-letnich. Antropomotoryka, 15, 55-67.

32. Januszewski J. 1991. Błąd pomiaru maksymalnej mocy anaerobowej przy braku standaryzacji próby Margarii-Kalamena. Antropomotoryka, 6, 63-76.

33. Januszewski J. 1992. Zmienność ontogenetyczna maksymalnej pracy anaerobowej - wyniki badań porównawczych. Antropomotoryka, 8, 75-87.

34. Januszewski J. 1996. Ontogenic Changeability of Maximal Anaerobic Work - Results of Comparative Studies. Antropomotoryka, 15, 3-15.

35. Januszewski J. 1998. Propozycje nowego podejścia do relatywnej oceny sprawności motorycznej. Antropomotoryka, 17, 163-173.

36. Januszewski J., Majchrzyk H. 1993. Powiązania wskaźnika morfologiczno-fizjologicznego (WM-F) i jego składowych ze sprawnością motoryczną dziewcząt w wieku od 10,5 do 14,5 lat. Antropomotoryka, 10, 143-156.

37. Januszewski J., Poznańska A., Matusik S. 1996. Modyfikacja testu Margarii-Kalamena. Antropomotoryka, 14, 55-66.

38. Jaworski J., Szopa J. 1998. Genetyczne i środowiskowe uwarunkowania wybranych predyspozycji somatycznych i motorycznych ludności wiejskiej Żywiecczyzny. Antropomotoryka, 18, 15-47.

39. Jopkiewicz A. 1998. Changeability and Familial Conditioning of Some Manifestations of Speed of Movement in Man. Antropomotoryka, 18, 3-13.

40. Juras G., Waśkiewicz Z., Raczek J. 1998. Zdolność orientacji czasowo-przestrzennej: identyfikacja, struktura wewnętrzna i metody diagnozy. Antropomotoryka, 17, 97-121.

41. Jurczak A. 1990. Zmiana mocy anaerobowej u chłopców i mężczyzn w wieku 8-23 lat. Antropomotoryka, 3, 53-67.

42. Jurczak A. 1992. Anaerobic Power Changes in Boys and Men Between the Ages of Eight and Twenty-three. Antropomotoryka. Studies in Human Motoricity, 7, 79-91.

43. Jurczak A., Szyguła Z. 1992. Wpływ przewodnienia na moc anaerobową. Antropomotoryka, 8, 99-108.

44. Kasperczyk T. 1990. Siła i wytrzymałość siłowa mięśni a postawa ciała u dzieci. Antropomotoryka, 3, 91-111.

45. Klimek A.T. 1993. Analiza porównawcza wydolności aerobowej oraz zaburzeń homeostazy ustrojowej u zawodników kadry narodowej Polski w biegach narciarskich i kombinacji norweskiej. Antropomotoryka, 10, 171-193.

46. Klimek A.T., Cempla J. 1997. Zmiany parametrów fizjologicznych, charakteryzujących progi metaboliczne i maksymalne obciążenie wysiłkowe u chłopców w okresie dojrzewania. Antropomotoryka, 16, 127-146.

47. Koszczyc T. 1991. Asymetria morfofunkcjonalna dzieci w młodszym wieku szkolnym. Antropomotoryka, 6, 77-104.

48. Król H. 1993. Wpływ pozycji startowej na przebieg ruchu w konkurencji podnoszenia ciężarów - rwanie. Antropomotoryka, 10, 127-136.

49. Król H., Bacik B. 1996. Z badań nad określeniem obiektywnych kryteriów analizy

i oceny ruchu. Cz. II - rytm ruchu. Antropomotoryka, 14, 141-146.

50. Król H., Bacik B. 1997. Kinematyka kroku płotkowego w zależności od wysokości płotka. Antropomotoryka, 16, 103-111.

51. Laakso L. 1992. Sports Tests in the Entrance Examination as Preditors of Academic Achievements in P. E. Teacher Tranning. Antropomotoryka. Studies in Human Motoricity, 7, 123-127.

52. Malinowski A., Przybyła B. 1993. Asymetria funkcjonalna u młodzieży szkolnej. Antropomotoryka, 9, 107-118.

53. Mekota K. 1992. Orientation and Selekt Findings from the Survey of Motor Fitness in Secondary School and University Students in Czechoslovakia. Antropomotoryka, Studies in Human Motoricity, 7, 129-133.

54. Mleczko E. 1992. Przegląd poglądów na temat motoryczności człowieka. Antropomotoryka. 8, 109-140.

55. Mleczko E. 1993. Zróżnicowanie środowiskowe a poziom i dynamika rozwoju funkcjonalnego dzieci krakowskich między 7 a 14 rokiem życia. Antropomotoryka, 10, 57-114.

56. Mleczko E., Ambroży T. 1997. Zanieczyszczenia środowiska naturalnego a rozwój somatyczny i funkcjonalny dzieci i młodzieży z regionu krakowskiego. Antropomotoryka, 16, 3-26.

57. Mynarski W. 1998. The Variability of the Inner Structure of Motor Abilities in Children and Youth. Antropomotoryka, 17, 63-96.

58. Mynarski W., Raczek J. 1991. Zmienność ontogenetyczna wybranych koordynacyjnych zdolności motorycznych u dzieci i młodzieży w wieku 7-18 lat. Antropomotoryka, 6, 39-61.

59. Nawrat A. 1993. Próba określenia modelu techniki ruchu do nauczania podnoszenia ciężarów. Antropomotoryka, 10, 137-142.

60. Nawrat A., Król H., Bacik B. 1990. Miopotencjały wybranych mięśni podczas rwania sztangi. Antropomotoryka, 4, 41-48.

61. Osiński W. 1989. Związki między szybkością biegową a wielkością wskaźników proporcji i komponentami ciała u dzieci i młodzieży z populacji wielkomiejskiej. Antropomotoryka, 1, 51-63.

62. Osiński W. 1990. Uwagi na tle definicji i klasyfikacji podstawowych pojęć charakteryzujących motoryczność człowieka. Antropomotoryka, 3, 3-8.

63. Osiński W. 1991. Siła mięśniowa i jej wartość względna jako wyznaczniki poziomu różnych właściwości motorycznych. Antropomotoryka, 5, 21-33.

64. Osiński W. 1992. Badania nad liniowością związków zachodzących w obrębie wewnętrznej struktury motoryczności człowieka. Antropomotoryka, 8, 43-62.

65. Osiński W. 1992. Researching into Relations Between the Locomotive Speed and the Body Traits, Indices, and Components of Children and Teenagers from Urban Population (on the Example of the City of Poznań). Antropomotoryka. Studies in Human Motoricity, 7, 93-101.

66. Osiński W. 1996. Body Fat and Motor Fitness: The Analysis of Shape of the Relationship in Boys and Girls. Antropomotoryka, 14, 3-15.

67. Pociecha M., Gołąb S. 1993. Syntetyczny miernik dynamiki rozwoju sprawności fizycznej w ontogenezie. Antropomotoryka, 10, 157-170.

68. Pociecha M., Matusik S. 1990. Efektywność metod uzupełniania brakujących danych w longitudinalnych pomiarach antropometrycznych. Antropomotoryka, 4, 49-65.

69. Prus G., Szopa J. 1997. Adaptabilność wybranych skłonności motorycznych u chłopców między 12 a 15 rokiem życia: rezultaty eksperymentu “trening-detrening-retrening”. Antropomotoryka, 16, 27-43.

70. Raczek J. 1989. Problem okresów sensytywnych i krytycznych w rozwoju ontogenetycznym. Antropomotoryka, 2, 89-101.

71. Raczek J. 1989. Teoria motoryczności (antropomotoryka) w systemie nauk o kulturze fizycznej. Antropomotoryka, 1, 5-18.

72. Raczek J. 1992. The Problem of Sensitive and Critical Periods in Motor Development. Antropomotoryka. Studies in Human Motoricity, 7, 55-67.

73. Raczek J. 1992. The Theory of Human Motoricity as an Area of Study and Subject of Teaching . Antropomotoryka. Studies in Human Motoricity, 7, 5-10.

74. Raczek J., Mynarski W. 1991. Z badań nad strukturą koordynacyjnych zdolności motorycznych. Antropomotoryka, 5, 3-19.

75. Raczek J., Król H., Bacik B. 1994. Z badań nad określeniem obiektywnych kryteriów analizy i oceny cech ruchu. Cz. I - Stałość ruchu. Antropomotoryka, 11, 77-89.

76. Ruchlewicz T., Chwała W., Blok M. 1998. Badania elektromiograficzne mięśni grzbietu u dziewcząt o różnym stopniu zaawansowania bocznych skrzywień kręgosłupa. Antropomotoryka, 18, 57-63.

77. Ruchlewicz T., Chwała W., Staszkiewicz R. 1996. Biomechaniczna charakterystyka skurczu izometrycznego antagonistycznych grup mięśni stawów łokciowych i kolanowych. Antropomotoryka, 15, 17-28.

78. Ruchlewicz T., Chwała W., Staszkiewicz R. 1997. Parametry charakteryzujące siłę wybranych grup mięśni u wspinaczy sportowych. Antropomotoryka, 16, 79-88.

79. Starosta W. 1989. Wybrane zagadnienia nauczania i doskonalenia techniki ruchu. (Na przykładzie sportów indywidualnych). Antropomotoryka, 2, 9-44.

80. Starosta W. 1994. Wpływ uprawianej dyscypliny sportowej na kształtowanie się u zawodników symetrii wrażeń kinestetycznych. Antropomotoryka, 11, 101-119.

81. Sterkowicz K., Sterkowicz S. 1996. Sprawność motoryczna studentek uprawiających aerobik. Antropomotoryka, 14, 127-140.

82. Sterkowicz S. 1994. Body Build and Physical Fitness of Karate Fighters. Antropomotoryka, 11, 41-76.

83. Sterkowicz S. 1995. Test specjalnej sprawności ruchowej w judo. Antropomotoryka, 12, 13, 29-44.

84. Sterkowicz S. 1996. Struktura sprawności specjalnej a przydatność bojowa żołnierzy. Antropomotoryka, 14, 111-126.

85. Sterkowicz S. 1997. W poszukiwaniu wskaźników sprawności motorycznej karateków. Antropomotoryka, 16, 55-78.

86. Sterkowicz S. 1998. Zdolności koordynacyjne a sprawność specjalna karateków. Antropomotoryka, 18, 65-77.

87. Sterkowicz S., Ambroży T. 1992. The Fitness Profile of the Men who Train's Jiu-jitsu. Antropomotoryka. Studies in Human Motoricity, 7, 135-141.

88. Stokłosa H., Raczek J. 1997. Wybrane zdolności motoryczne dzieci 13-letnich w aspekcie struktury kostnej metodą nieinwazyjną. Antropomotoryka, 16, 147-154.

89. Strel J. 1992. Longitudinal and Transversal Analysis of Manifestations of Acceleration and Retardation of Some Motor and Morphologic Characteristics of Slovene Youth. Antropomotoryka. Studies in Human Motoricity, 7, 115-121.

90. Strzyżewski S., Górna K., Powolny L. 1990. Uzdolnienia ruchowe i ich niektóre uwarunkowania. Antropomotoryka, 3, 9-39.

91. Szopa J. 1989. Nowa koncepcja klasyfikacji i struktury motoryczności człowieka. Antropomotoryka, 2, 3-7.

92. Szopa J. 1989. Sprawność fizyczna 12-18 letnich chłopców z miasta Sfax (Tunezja) na tle ich rówieśników z Krakowa, z uwzględnieniem zaawansowania rozwoju somatycznego (ujęcie relatywne). Antropomotoryka, 1, 65-75.

93. Szopa J. 1989. Z badań nad strukturą motoryczności: analiza czynnikowa predyspozycji oraz efektów motorycznych u chłopców i dziewcząt w wieku 8-19 lat. Antropomotoryka, 2, 45-71.

94. Szopa J. 1989. Zmienność ontogenetyczna oraz genetyczne i środowiskowe uwarunkowania maksymalnej pracy anaerobowej (MPA) - wyniki badań rodzinnych. Antropomotoryka, 1, 37-49.

95. Szopa J. 1991. Longitudinalna stabilność rozwojowa jako metoda określania genetycznych uwarunkowań rozwoju (analiza na przykładzie wybranych cech somatycznych i funkcjonalnych). Antropomotoryka, 5, 35-42.

96. Szopa J. 1992. From Studies on Human Motoricity Structure: a Factor Analysis on Predispositions and Motor Effects of Boys and Girls Between the Ages of Eight and Fourteen. Antropomotoryka. Studies in Human Motoricity, 7, 31-53.

97. Szopa J. 1992. Genetyczne uwarunkowania zdolności motorycznych - przegląd zagadnienia. Antropomotoryka, 8, 141-155.

98. Szopa J., Latinek K. 1998. Badania nad istotą i strukturą wewnętrzną koordynacyjnych zdolności motorycznych. Antropomotoryka, 17, 34-61.

99. Szopa J., Mleczko E. 1991. Longitudinalne badania rodzinne nad genetycznymi uwarunkowaniami rozwoju cech funkcjonalnych dzieci między 7 a 14 rokiem życia. Antropomotoryka, 6, 3-37.

100. Szopa J., Mleczko E. 1992. Longitudinal Family Studies on Genetic Conditioning of Functional Traits in Boys and Girls between Seven and Fourteen. Antropomotoryka. Studies in Human Motoricity, 7, 11-29.

101. Szopa J., Prus G. 1997. Wytrenowalność zdolności motorycznych u mężczyzn między 62 a 65 rokiem życia. Antropomotoryka, 16, 45-53.

102. Szopa J., Szczepanik M. 1993. The Influence of Coordination Training on the Speed of Learning the Technique of Movement in Volleyball. Antropomotoryka, 9, 127-142.

103. Szopa J., Wątroba J. 1992. Dalsze badania nad strukturą motoryczności ze szczególnym uwzględnieniem uzdolnień ruchowych. Antropomotoryka, 8, 3-42.

104. Szopa J., Wątroba J. 1993. Futher Studies on Motoricity Structure with a Special Reagard to Motor Capabilities. Antropomotoryka, 10, 3-33.

105. Szopa J., Chwała W., Ruchlewicz T. 1998. Badania struktury zdolności motorycznych o podłożu energetycznym i trafności ich testowania. Antropomotoryka, 17, 3-41.

106. Szopa J., Wątroba J., Jaworski J. 1994. Środowiskowe uwarunkowania rozwoju somatycznego i funkcjonalnego chłopców i dziewcząt z Krakowa w wieku 10, 14 i 18 lat. Antropomotoryka, 11, 91-100.

107. Szyguła Z., Jurczak A. 1992. Wpływ odwodnienia na moc anaerobową. Antropomotoryka, 8, 89-98.

108. Tyka A., Wnorowski J. 1993. Fizjologiczny efekt treningu fizycznego w okresie przygotowawczym piłkarzy nożnych. Antropomotoryka, 9, 69-85

109. Tyka A., Kubica R., Żuchowicz A., Gołąb S., Cherdrungsi P., Pekkarinen H., Hanninen O. 1994. Sprawność wysiłkowych mechanizmów termoregulacyjnych u przedstawicieli populacji Tajów i Finów. Antropomotoryka, 11, 143-151.

110. Vaverka F. 1993. Wpływ budowy ciała na wyniki w skokach narciarskich. Antropomotoryka, 9, 119-151.

111. Vaverka F., Kršková M., Elfmark M., Salinger J. 1991. Zależność pomiędzy efektywnością i dokładnością odbicia a długością skoku narciarskiego. Antropomotoryka, 6, 77-86.

112. Waśkiewicz Z., Juras G., Raczek J. 1998. Z badań nad dostosowaniem motorycznym. Antropomotoryka, 17, 123-152.

113. Wątroba J. 1990. Analiza wpływu proporcji i wielkości ciała na poziom i strukturę sprawności motorycznej na przykładzie 8-letnich chłopców z Krakowa. Antropomotoryka, 3, 69-89.

114. Wątroba J. 1992. An Analysis of the Influence of Body Size and Its Proportions on the Level and Structure of Motor Fitness on the Example of Eight-Year-Old Boys from Kraków. Antropomotoryka, Studies in Human Motoricity, 7, 103-114.

115. Welon Z., Sekita B. 1990. Prawidłowa masa ciała u dzieci w wieku przedszkolnym na podstawie kryterium sprawności fizycznej. Antropomotoryka, 4, 29-39.

116. Wnorowski J., Tyka A. 1991. Dynamika zmian częstości skurczów serca podczas meczu piłkarskiego na tle maksymalnych i progowych wielkości wybranych wskaźników fizjologicznych oznaczonych w wysiłkowym teście laboratoryjnym. Antropomotoryka, 5, 43-56.

117. Wolański N., Trześniowski R., Zaremba H., Przewęda R. 1990. Sprawność ruchowa i budowa ciała 9-12 letnich dzieci polskich a zużycie energii elektrycznej i właściwości demograficzne regionu. Antropomotoryka, 4, 3-28.

118. Żak S. 1994. Developmental Conditionings of Selected Motor Abilities of Children and Youth from Cracov Population. Antropomotoryka, 11, 3-40.

119. Żak S. 1994. Dymorfizm płciowy zdolności motorycznych dzieci i młodzieży z Krakowa w aspekcie uwarunkowań rozwojowych i aktywności ruchowej. Antropomotoryka, 11, 121-141.

120. Żak S., Sakowicz B. 1995. Rozwojowe i koordynacyjne uwarunkowania doskonalenia sprawności specjalnej dzieci uprawiających piłkę ręczną. Antropomotoryka, 12, 13, 13-28.

121. Żak S., Sakowicz B. 1996. Gibkość - uwarunkowania strukturalne, testowanie i zmienność ontogenetyczna (próba oceny relatywnej). Antropomotoryka, 14, 67-82.

122. Żak S., Sakowicz B. 1996. Wpływ ukierunkowanej stymulacji ruchowej na rozwój cech somatycznych i zdolności motorycznych chłopców trenujących piłkę ręczną między 11 a 14 rokiem życia. Antropomotoryka, 14, 83-97.

123. Żak S., Szopa J. 1993. Rozwojowe uwarunkowania zdolności szybkościowych u chłopców i dziewcząt między 7 a 19 rokiem życia. Antropomotoryka, 9, 3-43.

124. Mleczko E. 1993. Polska antropomotoryka w monografii “Motoryczność człowieka - jej struktura, zmienność i uwarunkowania.” Antropomotoryka, 10, 195-205.

125. Osiński W. 1993. Wzrastanie, dojrzewanie i aktywność fizyczna. Antropomotoryka, 9, 143-147.

126. Raczek J. 1990. Współczesna koncepcja teorii motoryczności sportowej. (Recenzja książki “Bewegunslehre-Sportmotorik”). Antropomotoryka, 4, 91-100.

127. Stolarczyk H. 1998. Uwagi na temat podręcznika pt. “ Podstawy antropometrii, metody, techniki, normy”. Antropomotoryka, 18, 87-89.

Polemics and Discussions

128. Bułkin W., Starosta W. 1991. Nowe elementy diagnozowania poziomu wytrenowania sportowców. Antropomotoryka, 6, 105-119.

129. Hirtz P., Starosta W. 1991. Kierunki badań koordynacji ruchowej w sporcie. Antropomotoryka, 5, 69-82.

130. Mynarski W. 1995. O strukturze motoryczności - dalsze uwagi i propozycje. Antropomotoryka, 12, 13, 107-116.

131. Raczek J. 1990. Czy rzeczywiście nowa i zasadna koncepcja klasyfikacji i struktury motoryczności człowieka? Antropomotoryka, 4, 71-84.

132. Szopa J. 1990. W obronie przyrodniczych podstaw klasyfikacji motoryczności: uwagi na tle polemiki J. Raczka. Antropomotoryka, 4, 85-90.

133. Szopa J. 1993. Raz jeszcze o strukturze motoryczności - próba syntezy. Antropomotoryka, 10, 217-227.

134. Szopa J. 1995. Kolejny krok w stronę integracji: uwagi na tle artykułu

W. Mynarskiego “O strukturze motoryczności” - dalsze uwagi i propozycje. Antropomotoryka, 12, 13, 117-119.

135. Szopa J. 1996. Czy tzw. “normy rozwojowe” mogą być biologicznymi układami odniesienia? Antropomotoryka, 15, 105-111.

136. Wolański N. 1990. Kultura fizyczna każdej epoki i każdego społeczeństwa jest i powinna być inna. Antropomotoryka, 4, 67-70.

137. Wolański N. 1991. Koncepcja niszy ekologicznej i teoria kultury fizycznej. (Uwagi ogólne i uwagi bardzo osobiste). Antropomotoryka, 5, 83-87.

138. Wolański N. 1991. Słownik terminologiczny polsko-angielski z zakresu antropomotoryki. Antropomotoryka, 6, 121-128.

Review Articles

139. Bora P. 1996. Somatyczne i funkcjonalne uwarunkowania wyniku skoku wzwyż - przegląd zagadnienia. Antropomotoryka, 15, 89-104.

140. Kasa J. 1994. Forming of Anthropomotorics in the System of Sports Science in Slovakia. Antropomotoryka, 11, 169-174.

141. Ljach W., Mynarski W., Raczek J. 1995. Biopsychiczne predyspozycje koordynacyjnych zdolności motorycznych - przegląd badań w piśmiennictwie rosyjskojęzycznym. Antropomotoryka, 12, 13, 83-106.

142. Marczewski W. 1996. Wykorzystanie techniki biocybernetycznej w antropomotoryce. Antropomotoryka, 15, 69-88.

143. Osiński W. 1998. Tendencje w tworzeniu testów sprawności fizycznej w ramach koncepcji “health-related fitness”.Antropomotoryka, 17, 175-193.

144. Skurvydas A., Stasiulis A., Jaščanin J. 1997. Theoretical Analysis of Mechanisms Determining Skeletal Muscles Fatigue. Antropomotoryka, 16, 155-161.

145. Szopa J. 1995. Uwarunkowania, przejawy i struktura motoryczności człowieka w świetle poglądów “szkoły krakowskiej”. Antropomotoryka, 12, 13, 59-82.

146. Szopa J. 1998. Struktura zdolności motorycznych - identyfikacja i pomiar. Antropomotoryka, 18, 79-86.

Chronical

147. Mekota K., Frömel K., Novosad J., Válkova H. 1992. Konferencja międzynarodowa “Sportmotorik 1991”. Antropomotoryka, 8, 157-161.

148. Rauk M., Kusy K. 1993. Międzynarodowa Konferencja Naukowa Sport Kinetics'93. Poznań 9-11 września 1993. Antropomotoryka, 10, 207-215.

149. Starosta W. 1991. Przyczyny powołania i zakres działalności Międzynarodowego Stowarzyszenia Motoryki Sportowej. Antropomotoryka, 5, 89-98.

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