CONTRASTIVE SYNTAX: COMPLEX SENTENCES, CONJUNCTION & THE PASSIVE VOICE
TERMINOLOGY: CLAUSES, CONJUNCTIONS, SENTENCES
clauses: independent, dependent
conjunctions: coordinating, subordinating
sentences: simple, complex, compound
1. CLAUSES
A. Independent (main) Clause
An independent clause is a group of words that contains a subject and verb. It expresses a complete thought. An independent clause is a sentence.
Jim studied in the Sweet Shop for his chemistry quiz.
B. Dependent (subordinate) Clause
A dependent clause is a group of words that contains a subject and verb but does not express a complete thought. A dependent clause cannot be a sentence. Often a dependent clause is marked by a dependent marker word.
When Jim studied in the Sweet Shop for his chemistry quiz . . .
2. CONJUNCTIONS
A. Coordinating Conjunctions: and, but, or, so yet
Jim studied in the Sweet Shop for his chemistry quiz, but it was hard to concentrate because of the noise.
B. Subordinating conjunctions
after, although, as, as if, because, before, even if, even though, if, in order to, since, though, unless, until, whatever, when, whenever, whether, and while...
When Jim studied in the Sweet Shop for his chemistry quiz, it was very noisy.
3. SENTENCES
A. Simple Sentences: only one verb phrase
A simple sentence is the most basic way of patterning words together to communicate a thought. It has three items, usually in this order:
1. a subject 2. a verb 3. words to complete the thought: The ice melts quickly.
B. Compound Sentences
at least 2 independent clauses, no dependent clauses
coordinating conjunctions
info of equal importance
Jenny hid the hen, and Benny tried (unsuccessfully) to hide the cow.
Max maintained that the database needed restructuring, but Laura disagreed.
He finally read the book, or so I thought.
Mary understands math; she has studied it for years.
C. Complex Sentences
an independent clause + at least one dependent clause
subordinating conjunctions
info of non-equal importance
4. THE TYPES OF CLAUSES: FUNCTIONAL PERSPECTIVE
Compare these sentences:
a) We bought a large house.
b) We bought a house that would be large enough for conversion into flats.
The group of words in italics in 1 b has the same function as large in la. It is doing the work of an adjective, qualifying the noun house.
a) Your speech gave everyone great pleasure.
b) What you said gave everyone great pleasure.
The group of words in italics in 2 b has the same function as your speech in 2a. It is doing the work of a noun, as subject of the verb gave.
a) I shall see you tomorrow.
b)I shall see you when I return from my holiday.
The group of words in italics in 3b has the same function as tomorrow in 3a. It is doing the work of an adverb, modifying the verb see.
5. COMPLEX SENTENCES: EMBEDDED CLAUSES
Types of embedded clauses
- complement sentences
- relative clauses
Complement sentences (inside various types of phrases):
- NP complement: The fact that John is bald iw well known to everyone.
Fakt, że Janek jest łysy jest wszystkim dobrze znany.
- AP complement: He was too big to feel comfortable in this car.
Był zbyt duży, by czuć się wygodnie w tym samochodzie.
- AdvP complement: He ran so fast that he could not notice her.
Biegł tak szybko, że nie mógł jej zauważyć.
6. COMPLEX SENTENCES: NON-ADVERBIAL COMPLEMENT SENTENCES
A) COMPLEMENTIZERS: TYPES (The types of complement sentences =complementizers):
- content (that/że) clauses – clause complementizers
Jack said that John is brave. Jacek powiedział, że Janek jest odważny.
- infinitive clauses – infinitive complementizers
Mary wants to swim. Marysia chce pływać
- gerundive clauses – gerunditive complementizers (Polish: deverbal -nie, -cie)
Jim avoids coming here. Jim unika przychodzenia tutaj.
B) COMPLEMENTIZERS: DISTRIBUTION
The distribution of complement sentences (=complementizers) depends mainly on the VERB.
Polish: Odmówił, *że pójdzie (clause) *pójść (infinitive) pójścia(gerunditive)
English: He managed *that he will go there. to go there.*going there.
Other verbs allow more than 1 possibility; the change of meaning may follow: I forgot that I went there. to go there. going there. Zapomniałem (o tym), że tam poszedłem. pójść tam. o pójściu tam.
POLISH VS. ENGLISH: CONTRASTS
English Polish
Infinitive Clause (że, żeby); Gerunditive
I. I expected/wanted John to come. *Spodziewałam się/chciałam Janka przyjść.
I expected that John would come. Spodziewałam się, że Janek przyjdzie.
I wanted that he come. Chciałam, żeby Janek przyszedł.
II. I persuaded John to come. *Nakłoniłam Janka przyjść.
I persuaded John into coming. Nakłoniłam Janka do przyjścia.
Infinitive Gerunditive
III. His name is easy to remember. *Jego imię jest łatwe zapamiętać.
*His name is easy for remembering. Jego imię jest łatwe do zapamiętania.
Gerunditive Infinitive
IV. The dog stopped biting the shoe. *Pies przestał gryzienia buta.
*The dog stopped to bite the shoe. Pies przestał gryźć but.
Gerunditive Clause
V. I was certain of his having the book. *Byłam pewna przeczytania przez niego książki.
I was certain that he had read the book. Byłam pewna, że przeczytał książkę.
C) a complementizing constructions in Polish with no equivalent in English.
Przyszedł, żeby nam pomóc. He came to help us.
Był zbyt zajęty, żeby nam pomóc. He was too busy to help us.
Sometimes 'żeby' may be deleted.
Chciał, żeby ją zaprosić. Chciał ją zaprosić.
Wstał, żeby wyjść. *Wstał wyjść.
'Żeby' non-infinitive clauses correspond generally to English infinitive constructions:
Przekonałam go, że nie ma niebezpieczeństwa. I persuaded him that there is no danger.
But
Przekonałam go, żeby został z nami. I persuaded him to stay with us. (Or: I suggest that he go to the theatre)
7. NON-ADVERBIAL COMPLEMENT SENTENCES: SOME TRANSFORMATIONAL PROCESSES
A) COMPLEMENTIZER DELETION
English: in many cases optional
- I know (that) he left.
Polish: complementizers cannot be deleted as freely
- *Wiem on wyszedł.
only when they are followed by 'by'
- Chcę, (a)by wyszedł.
B) PREPOSITION DELETION
Polish preposition present in the surface structure – English preposition has to be deleted.
- Nalegaliśmy na to, żeby Janek wrócił. *We insisted on it that John should come back.
- *Nalegaliśmy na, żeby Janek wrócił. *We insisted on that John should come back.
- Nalegaliśmy, żeby Janek wrócił. We insisted that John should come back.
There are, however, opposite cases: preposition deleted in Polish, but not in English:
E: The prisoners rebelled against the guards treating them badly.
P: Więźniowie buntowali się przeciw złemu traktowaniu przez dozorców.
temu, że dozorcy źle ich traktowali.
, że dozorcy źle ich traktowali.
E: *The prisoners rebelled that the guards treated them badly.
C) EXTRAPOSITION
underlying structure: That she did not read this book is very interesting.
To, że ona nie przeczytała książki, jest bardzo ciekawe
derived structure: It is very interesting that she did not read this book.
Bardzo to jest ciekawe, że ona nie przeczytała książki.
possible deletion: Dziwne, że nikt mnie nie poznał.
8. RELATIVE CLAUSES
Types: restrictive/defining & non-restrictive/non-defining
Deep structure: John sold my car and John was my best friend => John, who was my best friend, sold his car.
Related structures: Cleft- and pseudo-cleft sentences:
It was a record that I bought yesterday. What I bought yesterday was a record.
General constraint that does not apply in English: no 'stranding' of prepositions. It works for Polish:
*Pudełko, którego włożył swoje pieniądze do. The box he put his money into.
9. RELATIVE CLAUSES – RELATIVE PRONOUNS
No one-to-one correspondence between English and Polish pronouns:
E: who, that, which, what P: kto, który, co, jaki
Polish: all pronouns have full declension paradigms.
English: only who (whose, whom)
Polish kt-words: któr-ego, któr-emu show composite structure
co: 2 morphologically independent, separable free forms:
Ta kobieta, co mi ją pokazywałeś.
The presence of a following pronoun makes otherwise ill-formed clauses with co grammatical:
*ten, co Janek spotykał.
ten, co go Janek spotykał.
*tej dziewczyny, co Janek widział
tej dziewczyny, co ją Janek widział.
Co is used as an equivalent of which:
Jacek wstał, co zdziwiło obecnych. Jack got up, which astonished those present
- Most other situations: which/that = który
- English: relative pronouns may be deleted if they replace an NP other than the subject of the embedded sentence:
The pencil John found is green.
* The guy came here is wise.
- Polish: no deletion of relative pronouns.
10. ADVERBIAL CLAUSES
Types: based on semantic function (time, place, result, reason, degree etc.) signalled by subordinate conjunction (because, when, until etc.) or by participles:
E: Walking along the beach, I noticed a girl. P: Spacerując wzdłuż plaży, zauważyłem dziewczynę.
E: Having put the book aside, he started writing a letter. P: Położywszy na bok książkę, zaczął pisać list.
Selected Pl-Eng contrasts:
P: time or place NP can be replaced by wtedy, tam (then, there).
Przyszedł w czasie, kiedy czytałam książkę.
wtedy, kiedy....
E: not possible
He came at the time when I was reading the book.
*then when I was reading the book.
- P: complex structures possible:
odtąd, odkąd skąd, dokąd dotąd, dotąd
potem, jak przedtem, zanim tam, dokąd
E: the structures of the latter type are absent
Upadł przedtem, zanim zdążył wystrzelić.
He fell down before he could shoot.
- Adverbial clauses can appear initially in both languages:
Wtedy, kiedy go zobaczyłam, pomyślałam o tobie.
When I saw him, I thought of you.
- P: adverbial clauses can be separated from the rest of the sentence by the demonstrative 'to':
Gdy Cię zobaczyłam, to zemdlałam. When I saw you, I fainted.
Chociaż nie wolno, to spróbujemy. Although it is forbidden, we'll try.
11. CONJUNCTION
Bill read the book and Joe read the book. => Bill and Joe read the book.
Polish versus English:
- Polish has more conjunctions
free variation: lecz/ale, lub/albo, i/oraz
more intricate: a/i
- Polish: the functions of 'a':
a) contrast: Jacek poszedł do kina, a Janek został w domu. (English: 'and')
b) contradiction, suprise: Taki wybuch, a nikomu nic się nie stało. (Eng: 'and')
c) phrasal constructions with 'pomiędzy':
Pomiędzy mną a Anną nigdy nie było nieporozumień. (Eng: 'between')
d) ultimatum (comparable to 'if' clauses): Jeden ruch, a strzelam. (Eng: 'and', 'if')
- Polish: restrictions concerning 'respective(ly)'
The uncle and the cousin respectively bought and sold a car.
* Wujek i kuzyn odpowiednio kupił i sprzedał samochód.
My wife and I visited our respective mothers.
* Moja żona i ja odwiedziliśmy nasze odpowiednie?/odpowiadające? matki.
12. PASSIVE AND RELATED CONSTRUCTIONS
Passive in both languages:
John wrote the letter. => A letter was written by John
Janek napisał list. => List był napisany przez Janka.
- an underlying object NP is moved to the position of the surface subject.
- the use of a preposition 'by'/'przez'
- a copular verb 'be'/'być' is introduced, which agrees grammatically with the new subject NP.
- the transitive verb takes the form of a passive participle
The main differences between Polish and English:
a) the properties of the verbal copula + participle construction
b) the restrictions on the type of NP which may undergo Object Preposing.
c) passive is more important and more common in English.
a) In Polish both the copula and the participle agree with the subject noun:
On był widziany przez nas. He was seen by us.
Ona była widziana... She was seen...
Ono było widziane... It was seen...
Oni byli widziani... They were seen...
One były widziane... They were seen...
b) Object Preposing is restricted in Polish to direct object NP.
English allows for the movement of all types of objects.
Active: Tom gave John a book. Tomek dał Jankowi książkę.
Passive – direct object preposing: A book was given to John by Tom. Książka została dana przez Tomka Jankowi.
Passive – indirect object preposing: John was given a book by Tom. *Janek był dany książkę przez Tomka.
- further examples:
Mary looked at Jack. Maria patrzyła na Jacka.
Jack was looked at by Mary. *Jacek był patrzony na przez Marię.
Jack thought about Mary. Jacek myślał o Marii.
Mary was thought about by Jack. *Maria była myślana o przez Jacka.
Equivalents in Polish? Word order – movement to the initial position.
Jankowi dał książkę Tomek.
Na Jacka patrzyła Maria.
O Marii myślał Jacek.
- further equivalents: Polish subjectless constructions:
This bed has not been slept in since summer. (No one has slept in this bed...)
*To łóżko nie było spane w od lata.
BUT: W tym łóżku nie spano od lata.
He was looked at. (Someone looked at him)
*On był patrzony na.
BUT: Patrzono się na niego.
- 'get' has no direct equivalent in Polish. 'Zostać' is used instead:
Mary got promoted by the boss. Mary została awansowana przez szefa.
'get' and 'zostać' have similar restrictions (sense of completion necessary):
*She got loved. She was loved.
*Ona została kochana. Ona była kochana.
- in both languages the passive may be blocked.
He has money. *Money is had by him.
On ma pieniądze. *Pieniądze są miane przez niego.
- however, the two systems may differ:
*Mary was married by John. Maria została poślubiona przez Johna.
She was preferred to all others by the boss. *Była wolana od wszystkich...
- a large group of exceptions to passivization: Polish reflexive verbs
Spodziewam się awansu. I expect a promotion.
*Awans jest spodziewany przeze mnie. A promotion is expected by me.