Chapter ##
FROZEN PLURACTIONALS
hapter ## describes three verbal pluractional formation processes in Bole one
productive process of initial CV- reduplication, available for essentially all verbs,
C
and two active but non-productive processes, viz. infixing -Ki- within a verb root
and geminating the second consonant of a root. The latter two active processes apply
only to a limited number of CVC- verb roots. Lexical evidence suggests that the latter
two processes at one time may have been more productive than they now are and may
have applied to a larger range of root types than they now do. This evidence is in the
form of  frozen pluractionals , for which unmodified roots are no longer in use and
which do not convey obvious pluractional meaning (see the introductory section of
Chapter ## for a description of canonical pluractional meanings). This chapter presents
several patterns of frozen pluractionals. The concluding section presents a
comparative/historical perspective in which we argue that all Bole geminate and infixed
pluractionals have their source in an infixed root consonant.
1. Frozen Pluractionals with a Geminate Consonant
1.1. CVGV verbs (G = geminate consonant). A feature of Bole that strikes anyone
first approaching the language is the large number of verbs of the form CVGV. In our
currently available list of nearly 700 verbs, 117 are of this type, excluding those that have
an active relationship to roots without a geminated C2 and those not found in the Fika
dialect. Of the total 117, 107 are in Class A2 (the morphological correspondent to Class
A1 non-pluractionals) and 10 are in Class B2 (the morphological correspondent to Class
B non-pluractionals). What is particularly striking is the proportion of CVGV verbs in
the verbal lexicon. The total number of verbs with two distinct root consonants (C2 =
singleton or geminate) is 302. Thus, over one third of all biconsonantal roots have a
geminated C2. Additionally, there are 38 verbs of the type CVGV that have a transparent
connection to existing CVCV roots. Below are some examples of Bole CVGV roots.
Where available, we have included cognates from the Yaya dialect of Ngamo (Ng) and
Karekare (Ka) to show that Bole has not inherited geminate consonants in these verbs
from an ancestral language.1 The forms are cited in the completive, marked by a suffix
that comes from earlier *-kò. In some cases the verbs belong to different classes (A1, A2,
B) in the different languages.
1
Cognate items with the same meanings are more readily available between Bole and Ngamo than between
Bole and Karekare because Ngamo is linguistically closer to Bole than is Karekare. In the Yaya dialect of
Ngamo, Class A2 verbs in the completive end in -ô, sometimes pronounced -o ò < *-u-kò. Class B verbs
end in -â, sometimes pronounced -a Ä… < *-a-kò.
1
Class A2 verbs
 burn, roast
boćkku-woĄyi Ng baćka]
 gather, collect
daćppu-woĄyi Ng daĄfo]
 follow
fioćppu-woĄyi Ng fiaĄfo] Ka fiaĄfu-kaću
 buy
goćjju-woĄyi Ng kaćja]
 for dawn to break Ng gol-kò Ka gÄ…l-kâu  spend the day
goćllu-woć
 plant, sow Ng kap-kò
kaćppu-woĄyi
(Ngamo kućnno] bor. from Bole)2
 thank
kućnnu-woĄyi
 extinguish (fire) Ng mbit-kò Ka mbìtu-kÄ…u
mbìttu-woÄ„yi
 spend time, rest Ng nas-kò
noćssu-woć
 dig
oćppu-woÄ„yi Ng op-kò Ka aćfa\-kaću
 grind
oćssu-woÄ„yi Ng es-kò Ka &yaćsu-kaću
 dry up
poć&&u-woć Ng ho&i-koć
 break, shatter Ng hoi-kò
poćyyu-woć
 drive away Ng rÄ…kâ Ka rÄ…ku-kÄ…u
roćkku-woĄyi
 fry
sućrru-woÄ„yi Ng sur-kò Ka sìr-ka]u
 push
tućbbu-woĄyi Ng tuĄbo]
Class B2 verbs
 trick, scare
baćtta\-woĄyi
 expand an opening
bìtta\-woÄ„yi
 swell
kaćbba\-woć Ng kÄ…bâ (also Bole kaćwa\-  be sated )
 remain, be left
maćssa\-woć
 wipe, wipe off
sìfifia\-woÄ„yi Ng sa&a-koć Å›safi-koćś  rub
The distinction between frozen pluractionals and  active geminate pluractionals is
blurry. Among active pluractionals we have included some verbs where there is a clear
form and meaning relationship between an underived verb and a verb with geminate C2,
but where one or both verbs have shifted in meaning such that the geminated form does
not bear a canonical pluractional relationship to the simple form. Consider the following
examples.
Class A1 verb Class A2 verb
 feel sudden pain  chop
ga&yu-woć gać&y&yu-woĄyi
 sip  consume liquid with hand
go+"-woĄyi goć+"+"u-woĄyi
 observe, look  wait for
moyu-woĄyi moćyyu-woĄyi
 boil; be angry  abuse
pulu-woć pućllu-woĄyi
 nip off  trim (e.g. hair)
washu-woĄyi waćccu-woĄyi
2
Bole has had considerable influence on Ngamo. The fact that Ngamo has few words with geminate
consonants and does not form pluractionals with gemination makes it certain that this word is borrowed.
Most Yobe State languages have borrowed the Hausa root gode to mean  thank .
2
Class B verb Class B2 verb
 untie  untangle
bìfia\-woÄ„yi bìfifia\-woÄ„yi
 widen pot mouth  scrape out
kućla\-woĄyi kućlla\-woĄyi
 protrude  glare at (protrude eyes?)
zućla\-woć zućlla\-woĄyi
In some of these verb pairs, it is difficult to see what is  pluractional in meaning
about the geminated form. Thus, while the relationship of goć+"+"u-woĄyi  consume liquid
with hands to go+"u-woĄyi  sip could be understood as  taking repeated sips , it is not so
obvious how pućllu-woĄyi  abuse could be understood as  repeated boilings or  repeated
angerings from pulu-wò.
As for frozen CVGV pluractionals with no extant CVCV counterpart, most have no
obvious element of plural action. Although some verbs like kaćppu-woĄyi  plant or
oćssu--woĄyi  grind involve repetitive action and thus could credibly have their origin in
pluractional derived forms, no such natural relationship to plural action holds for fioćppu-
woĄyi  follow , sućrru-woĄyi  fry , kaćbba\-woć  swell , or, in fact, most of the 117 CVGV
verbs that we have identified. Bole has numerous morphological environments that
create geminate consonants (see for example, ##, ##, ##). It seems that Bole has a
Sprachgefühl that welcomes gemination. Once Bole developed gemination as a method
of pluractional formation, some of these geminate pluractionals became the primary verbs
and the underived bases were lost, obscuring the origin in pluractionality. The door was
then opened to geminating C2 of certain verbs just because it  sounded good , without the
requirement that plural action be a necessary semantic corollary.3
1.2. CVGVCV verbs (G = geminate consonant). In modern Bole, the only active
geminate pluractionals are based on class A1 and class B verbs, i.e. verbs with root
structure CV¨C-. Likewise, most underived verbs that have the same form as geminate
pluractionals (CVGV) have just two root consonants. There are, however, a few verbs
with three root consonants where C2 is geminate. Since both comparative Chadic and
internal Bole evidence point away from inheritance of underived geminate consonants,
these CVGVCV roots suggest that geminate pluractional formation may have at one time
applied to a larger set of verbs than just those of classes A1 and B. The list below is
exhaustive for currently available materials.
 expand s.th. circular, e.g. fan
bìccìru-woÄ„yi
 knead, form into balls
fiućkkućru-woĄyi = fiućkku-woĄyi
 be crooked, be tilted
gìccìyu-woć
 drumming cf. kòlmò  praise singing
koćllìmi (noun)
 wad up
kućsshìmu-woÄ„yi
3
A few Bole CVGV verbs may come from *C1VC2C3V, with assimilation of C2 to C3, e.g. Bole
shÄ…ttu-  uproot  cf. Ngamo shapto  extract, pull out . However, nearly all Bole CVGV verbs with
identified cognates in other languages correpond to CVC- roots in those languages. Moreover, the most
common way for Bole to resolve undesirable consonant sequences is epenthesis, e.g. Bole yać+"ìru-  scatter ,
Ngamo ya+"ro.
3
 jacks (a game involving flipping and
laćkkìleć (noun)
catching a stone)
 descend en masse, e.g. flock of birds
lìkkìtu-woć
 become entangled
loćkkìfiu-woć = loćkku-woÄ„yi
 stuff the mouth with food
mućkkućfiu-woĄyi
 rub back and forth between palms
mućmmusu-woĄyi = mućrmućsu-woĄyi
 become flustered
taćkkìlu-woć
 stitch
toćggìfiu-woÄ„yi
 recognize
yaćkkìnu-woÄ„yi
 purse the lips (to show disdain)
zuć&y&yìru-woÄ„yi
Most of these verbs involve inherent plural action of some sort repetitive action
and/or action by several individuals reinforcing the notion that they are frozen
pluractionals. A couple have the form of verbal nouns but the source verb, if there ever
was one, is no longer in use.
Two of the verbs ( knead and  become entangled ) are related to verbs of the CVGV
type. Bole, like other West Chadic languages, has a number of  remnant verbal affixes
(##) non-productive suffixes of uncertain function. For the two verbs in question, it is
hard to say whether the affixes -r- and -fi- have been attached to a CVGV stem or the
medial consonant of the affixed verb was geminated. Another verb pair not included in
the table is goćjju-woÄ„yi  buy vs. goćjjìtu-woÄ„yi  sell . In this case, we know that a semi-
productive causativizing affix -t- (##) has been added to a CVGV stem. In the case of the
verb meaning  rub back and forth between palms it is hard to be sure whether this is a
CVGVCV verb or a verb with an infixed copy of the initial CV, described in ż3.
2. Frozen Pluractionals with an Infix -Ki-
Chapter ##, ż2.1 describes pluractional verb formation by infixation of a syllable
-gi- in the Fika dialect, e.g. &yoćrangoć  they stopped , pluractional &yoćgìrangoć  they
stopped one by one . That section also mentions that the Gadaka dialect productively
forms pluractionals of Class A1 and B verbs by infixing -ki-/-ku-/-k- (quality of vowel or
absence of vowel determined by context). Bole has numerous verbs with an internal
syllable -Ki- (K = a velar stop,  i = [i], [u], or in a few cases, Ø) which formally
resemble infixed pluractionals and many of which, like the geminated verbs described in
ż1.2, involve inherent plural action. The lists below are exhaustive for currently
available materials, omitting pronunciation variants. Those on the left are formally
identical to active infixed pluractionals, i.e. the -Ki- syllable is sandwiched in a frame
CV__CV. Those on the right have an additional consonant abutting the -Ki- syllable.
We have grouped the latter verbs according to the consonant that precedes the
-Ki- syllable.
CVKiCV CVCKiCV
baćgìdu-woÄ„yi  pound grain 2nd time baćngìlu-woć  become confused
bućkućlu-woÄ„yi  roll along dećnkìfiu-woÄ„yi  stuff into
ć
joćgìlu-woÄ„yi  stir a thin substance dìnkìfiu-woć  be crowded
4
jućgućlu-woÄ„yi  churn milk fiaćngìlu-woÄ„yi  cling to, adhere to
lećkìtu-woÄ„yi  disperse; spread (news, etc.) fiaćngìlu-woć  put on airs
moćkìtu-woÄ„yi  get wet; moisten fiìngìmu-woć  submerge
njećkì+"u-woć  become sloppy laćnkìnu-woÄ„yi  rinse
pìktun-go 4  come to (after fainting) rìnkì+"u-woć  be well dressed
rućgućzu-woÄ„yi  raze, destroy shaćnkìlu-woÄ„yi  rinse
sìkìtu-woÄ„yi  reduce in amount sućnkućnu-woÄ„yi  sniff at, smell
taćkućmnu-woĄyi5  chew zućnkućnu-woĄyi  singe
toćkìlu-woÄ„yi  stir with small motions baćrgìlu-woć  dislocate, become sprained
yaćkìlu-woÄ„yi  lack bìrkìtu-woÄ„yi  confuse, become confused
zoćgìnu-woÄ„yi  toss, flip bućrgìlu-woÄ„yi  stir with swizzle stick
zućkućlu-woÄ„yi  stir thin subtance +"oćrkìtu-woÄ„yi  locate a gap or soft spot
maćrkìfiu-woÄ„yi  wring out, twist
zaÄ„gìru-woć  shout pìrkìtu-woÄ„yi  make hole by prodding
baćskìnu-woÄ„yi  curse
mućskućfiu-woć  feel nauseous
paćskìfiu-woÄ„yi  translate
wìlkìfiu-woÄ„yi  pick apart, pick open
At our current state of knowledge, we cannot be sure that all of these are frozen
pluractionals with a -Ki- infix rather than a root that happened to have a velar stop as one
of its consonants. For example, corresponding to bućrgìlu-  stir with swizzle stick is
Gadaka bućrgu-, which may or may not be a borrowing from Hausa burgaĄ. The verb
fiaćngìlu-  put on airs may be related to fiìngu-woć  have a concave back (referring to
the posture of someone who puts on airs?). Note also that the final consonants of the
verbs in the lists above comprise a restricted set of the Bole consonant inventory, esp. l
(14 cases!), n, t, and fi. These are among the most frequent  remnant affix consonants
(##) and hence could be additions to a CV(C)KV- root rather than being the original final
consonant of a root containing an infixed -Ki-. Still, there is evidence that at least some
of these do derive from infixation. The verb maćrkìfiu-  wring out coexists with
maćrfiu- in the same meaning. The verb mućskućfiu-  feel nauseous has a Gadaka dialect
counterpart mućsfiu-. The verb wìlkìfiu-  pick apart, pick into may be related to yÅ‚llu-
 investigate . The verbs słnkłnu-  sniff at and tąkłmnu-  chew look to be cognate
with Hausa sansaćna\ and tamnaĄ (= taunaĄ in  Standard Hausa) respectively.
Note in the right hand column that the range of consonants that precede putative infix
-Ki- is restricted to the alveolar sonorants (n, r, l) and s. In the left hand column, all the
4
The stem pikt- is used only with the ventive extension (##), parallel to Hausa fa®fafio\, with the same
meaning. Furthermore, the Hausa verb is pluractional in form with no transparently related simple stem in
current use. The typological parallel of verbs in certain meanings having the form of frozen pluractionals
holds between Bole and Hausa (and undoubtedly for other Chadic languages) for a number of verbs. Note
in the lists here, for example, Bole sućnkućnu-, Hausa sansaćna\  sniff at (with a cognate root) and Bole
zućnkućnu-, Hausa babbaćke\  singe , the latter cognate with Bole bòkku-  burn, roast , which has the form
of a frozen CVGV pluractional.
5
This verb has an additional final stem consonant, probably a remnant affix (##).
5
verbs except zaÄ„gìru-  shout have short vowels in the intial syllable. We return to the
significance of these skewings in section 4.
3. Verbs of the form C1VC1iC2V
Several verbs have what appears to be an infixed -Ci- syllable, where C = repetition
of the first stem consonant rather than K. The lists below are exhaustive for currently
available data. In addition to verbs, there are a few nouns that looka as if they could be
verbal nouns.
C1V|C1iC2V C1VC2C1iC3V
bÏbìyu-woÄ„yi  swing around, whirl bućmbućlu-woÄ„yi  roll on the ground
gÏgìyu-woÄ„yi  tie rope tightly around mućrmućsu-woÄ„yi  rub between palms
jaÄ„jìnu-woÄ„yi  groom a horse ngìrngìru-woÄ„yi  cling to
kaÄ„kìlu-woÄ„yi  suck particles from teeth
koÄ„kìlu-woÄ„yi  gnaw
muĄmućsu-woĄyi  roll thing around
nguĄngućru-woĄyi  mumble, murmur
pÏpìlu-woÄ„yi  nibble at
puĄpućru-woĄyi  shake dirt loose from roots
rÏrìmu-woÄ„yi  become quite, abate
saÄ„sìlu-woÄ„yi  touch lightly
soĄsuwu-woĄyi  touch lightly with hand
suĄsućwu-woĄyi  whisper
teÄ„tìyu-woÄ„yi  try hard
laĄlućmoć  dried guinea corn leaves
pu\puro  lumps of flour in atti
roÄ„rìyoć  trembling, shivering
Like CVGVCV verbs described in ż2.1 and CV(C)KiCV verbs described in ż3, most
of the verbs with infixed -Ci- involve inherent plural action of some kind, and though we
have not yet found relationships between any of these verbs and CVCV stems, some of
them have meanings that other languages express with verbs that are pluractional in
form cf.koÄ„kìlu-  gnaw with Hausa gwÄ™gwìya\ in the same meaning.
4. Historical Perspective on Bole Pluractional Formation
Frozen pluractional morphological types are in near complementary distribution
corresponding to the structure of the hypothetical bases from which the pluractionals
were derived: 6
6
In labializing environments, a few of the frozen pluractionals have -u- in the infixed syllable rather than
the -i- in the schemata below. We list only patterns for verbs with two or more original base consonants.
There apparently are no frozen pluractionals derived from monoconsonantal bases.
6
" *C1V¨C2V > C1VG2V (ż1.1), C1V¨KiC2V (ż2) see below for further comment
" *C1V|C2V > C1V|C1iC2V (ż3)
" *C1VC2C3V > C1V®2KiC3V (® = n, r, l, s) (ż2), C1VG2iC3V (G `" n, r, l, s) (ż2)
Gimba (2000:161) pointed out that only verbs with a sonorant or fi as the second root
consonant have active infixed pluractionals (##). Most of the verbs listed in ż2 likewise
conform to this restriction, the only exceptions being verbs where the final consonant is t,
one of the most common remnant affixes as well as being a semi-productive transitizing
affix (##), and the verb rućgućzu-  raze, destroy , where the -g- may be an original root
consonant rather than an infix (cf. Hausa rugu®gućza\  smash; crumble , a frozen
pluractional from a base *rug(u)za). The complementarity in frozen pluractionals would
cover all verbs with two or more base root consonants if the C1VG2V pattern applied only
to C1V¨C2V roots where G2 is a consonant OTHER THAN a sonorant or fi. This is not the
case, but in ż1.1, we provided evidence that the C1VG2V pattern has taken on a life of its
own, and Bole has extended this pattern lexically to many verbs where plural action is not
a factor.
Comparative evidence points to the path which Bole has followed to arrive at this set
of pluractional patterns from a single source. In the Chadic languages of Yobe State
other than Bole, the prevailing pattern for pluractional verb formation is REDUPLICATIVE
INFIXATION. This is true of both the West Chadic B languages, Bade and Ngizim, and the
West Chadic A languages, Karekare and Ngamo. We present data from Karekare and
Ngamo (Yaya dialect), the languages most closely related to Bole within Yobe State.
Boxes enclose the reduplicative infixes.
KAREKARE7
Verb class Base form Pluractional
A1  he spoke
fiaćfu\-si-kaću
fiafaćfu\-si-kaću
ć
 he picked up
aćsu\-si-kaću
asasu\-si-kaću
ć ć
B  he shot
baćsa\-si-kaću
basaćsa\-si-kaću
ć
A2  he sold
fiìbaćtu\-si-kaću
fiìbataćtu\-si-kaću
ć
NGAMO8
A1  I killed a mouse/mice
nì dugo-k koćsu
nì dućdgo-k koćsaćsać
 he bit me
at-na\"
akti-na\"
ć
B  I shot a bird/birds
nì baćsa-k raÄ„yi
nì babsa-k raÄ„yaćku
ć
A2  he sent a boy/peopleĆ
tuĄbo-k aćmba
tućtuÄ„bo-k bìya
 I scratched my body
nì aćdgo-k zućgoćno
nì ać&aćdgo-k zućgoćno
7
In the Karekare forms, -si- is the mark of the totality extension when no object is expressed; -kÄ…u is the
completive suffix. A common feature of Yobe State languages is to use the completive plus the totality
extension when translating Hausa sentences in the completive.
8
In the Ngamo forms, -k is the mark of the totality extension before nominal objects. See the previous
footnote for use of the totality extension.
7
Karekare derives all pluractionals with two or more consonants by infixing
-Ca- where C = the final stem consonant. Ngamo forms pluractionals of C1V¨C2V roots
(i.e. verbs of Class A1 and B) by infixing a copy of C1 after the first CV. If the verb has a
Ø onset, the verb infixes -k- after the first CV. For longer verbs, i.e. those of Class A2,
Ngamo prefixes a copy of the first CV-, with V being short for all verbs, including those
with a long vowel in the first syllable of the base. For bases wih Ø onset, glottal stop is
the default onset separating the initial syllable of the base from the reduplicated syllable.
Using this evidence, we hypothesize that all the frozen pluractionals in Bole as well
as all active CVGV and CVKiCV pluractionals (##) derive from a pattern
[XCRY]pluractional, i.e. infixation of a root consonant. The -i- that shows up in pluractionals
other than the CVGV type is epenthetic. Ngamo is far more tolerant than Bole in terms
of permissible consonant sequences. Bole has resolved consonant hiatus in two ways, viz.
epenthesis of -i- or complete assimilation, resulting in a geminate. Epenthesis is always
the choice when the syllable preceding the infixed consonant is/was heavy (C1V|C1iC2V,
C1V®2KiC3V, C1VG2iC3V patterns). Current evidence also suggests that epenthesis was
the choice if infixation would have resulted in a sequence [obstruent]-[sonorant],9 a
sequence also disallowed in some otherwise  sequence tolerant languages, such as
Ngizim. Other consonant sequences have resulted in geminates. We reiterate the
observation that at some point, Bole began extending geminate formation as a process in
its own right without requiring a source form a CxCy sequence. This tendency in Bole has
obscured the reconstructed source for geminates.
This account has ducked two questions: why does Bole infix -Ki- rather than -CR-,
and which base consonant is it that was infixed? Ngamo suggests an answer by the fact
that it infixes -k- as a default for verbs with onsetless first syllables. If this was a feature
of proto-Bole-Ngamo, Bole has simply extended the default pattern to all infixed
syllables. Another possibility, not mutually exclusive with this one, is that -K- originally
WAS one of the root consonants. In a verb like gowu-  beat , the still active infixed
pluractional is gògìwu-. The syllable -gi- is potentially ambiguous as to source is it
reduplication of the initial g- or is it an infix of invariable form? If Bole speakers
interpreted it in the latter way, it would automatically be the pluractional marker for any
verb, replacing reduplicative infixation. Both these sources for -Ki- infixation fail to
answer the question as to why the infix is -k- rather than, say, -s-. We will not attempt to
answer this question, since any answer would be idle and unproductive speculation.
The second question raised above is which base consonant was reduplicated.
Karekare reduplicates the last consonant, a type of reduplication that could account for
most of the Bole forms, e.g.
*pata- > pa-t(V)-ta- > patta-  go out
*&yoru- >  yo-r(V)-ru- >  yogiru-  stop
*pas(i)fiu- > pas-fi(i)-fiu- > paskifiu-  translate
An advantage of this source is that it would get the common CVGV pattern directly,
i.e. the geminate consonant would be, literally, a doubling of the last consonant. It would
9
Epenthesis also applies before fi. This is not a sonorant, of course, but implosive/laryngealized
consonants pattern with sonorants in a number of ways in Chadic languages and elsewhere.
8
be hard to understand, however, why words like  yogiru-  stop repeatedly (from  yoru-)
would have an infix rather than a geminate * yorru-. It seems more likely that the
infixed consonant was C1, as in Ngamo. Not only is Ngamo a closer cousin of Bole than
is Karekare, but also Bole still has a remnant of C1 infixation in verbs like rÏrìmu-  shake
dirt loose < *ręmu-. The path for deriving the modern geminate and -Ki- pluractionals
from C1 infixation would thus be as follows:
*pata- > pa-p(V)-ta- > patta-  go out
*&yoru- >  yo- y(V)-ru- >  yogiru-  stop
*pas(i)fiu- > pas-pi-fiu- > paskifiu-  translate
As described in Chapter ##, the productive pattern of pluractional formation for all
classes of verbs in modern Bole is initial CV- reduplication, e.g. baćsa\- !
baćbaćsa\-  shoot . This pattern has its counterpart in Ngamo Class A2 pluractionals. The
simplest explanation for why modern Bole has initial CV- reduplication for ALL verb
classes is that Bole has extended a pattern that was at one time more restricted. The
motivation for such an extension would be simplification of the complex system
pluractional formation that had developed where some verbs formed pluractionals by
gemination, some by -K- infixation, and some by C1 infixation. This suggestion raises
the question, however, of where initial CV- reduplication came from in the first place.
This is a restricted pattern at best in West Chadic (Hausa being one of the few languages
where it is dominant). We put the answer to this question aside as a subject for future
research.
9
Verbs of the following forms?
jakkutu (is there a verb?)
p loppinu
b lobbinu
b' lob'b'inu
t lottinu
d loddinu
d' lod'd'inu
z/j lozzinu, lojjinu
We have examples with s, 'y, k, g, but more would be good.
10