British foreign policy after WWII

• Cold War politics dominated by the United States and the Soviet Union

• declining empire -UK's international status reduced

• decolonization

• started before WWII

• relatively peaceful

• the peak - 1960s

• maintaining good relations with former colonies within the Commonwealth

• maintaining strong Anglo-American relations - “special relationship”

• finding a new identity in relations with Europe, especially after joining the European Economic Community (EEC) in 1973

Britain in the world today:

• medium-size country

• a major trading nation and finance center

• the world's fifth largest economy (after the USA, Japan, Germany and China)

• the EU's second largest economy

• the world's second largest exporter of services

• the world's sixth largest exporter of goods

• involved in a number of coalition military actions in the world

Major international events after WWII involving Britain

• 1948-49 - Berlin Blockade

• 1950-53 Korean War

• 1951-54 Abadan Crisis

• 1958, 1972-73, 1975-76 - Cod Wars with Iceland

• 1982 Falklands War

• 1991 the Gulf War

• 1990s the Balkans

• 1999 Kosovo

• 2000 Sierra Leone

• 2001 Afghanistan

• 2003 Iraq War

UK's membership in international organizations

The UK is a member of some 120 different organization:

• United Nations (UN) (a signatory of the U.N. Charter in 1945)

• UN Security Council - one of five permanent members

• North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO) (a signatory of the Treaty of Washington in 1949)

• Council of Europe (a signatory of the Treaty of London in 1949)

• European Union (since the UK's accession in 1973)

• Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development (OECD) (a founding member, 1961)

• World Trade Organization (WTO) (a founding member, 1995)

• Western European Union (WEU) (a signatory of the Treaty of Brussels in 1948)

• Organization for Security and Cooperation in Europe (OSCE) (a founding member, 1973)

• International Monetary Fund / World Bank (a founding member, 1945)

• Group of 8 (G8) (a participant in the summit of Rambouillet, 1975)

British institutions of foreign policy:

Foreign and Commonwealth Office (since 1968; est. as the Foreign Office in 1782)

British Embassies (in non-Commonwealth countries)

High Commissions (in Commonwealth countries)

Britain has diplomatic relations with 160 countries

Remnants of the British Empire

LECTURE 5 ATTACHMENT 1 British Empire 1897

BRITISH OVERSEAS TERRITORIES

CROWN DEPENDENCIES

THE COMMONWEALTH

BRITISH OVERSEAS TERRITORIES

Anguilla,

Bermuda,

British Antarctic Territory,

British Indian Ocean Territory,

British Virgin Islands,

Cayman Islands,

Falkland Islands,

Gibraltar,

Montserrat,

Pitcairn Island,

South Georgia and South Sandwich Islands,

St. Helena and Dependencies (Ascension Island and Tristan da Cunha)

Turk and Caicos Islands

Sovereign Base Areas on Cyprus

until 1997 - Hong Kong - handed over to China

CHARACTERISTICS:

• territories in world still belonging to Britain

• total population about 250,000

• Queen represented in the territories by a Governor (populated) or Commissioner (unpopulated)

• Administered by the Foreign and Commonwealth Office

• different forms of local government

• legal systems independent of the UK

The British Overseas Territories Act 2002

• change of name from British Dependent Territories to British Overseas Territories

• BOT citizens are at the same time British citizens

CROWN DEPENDENCIES

• Bailiwick of Guernsey and Bailiwick of Jersey (Channel Islands)

• the Isle of Man

• possessions of the Crown NOT the UK

• separate legal systems, taxation, legislatures, customs and immigration policy

• Queen represented by a Lieutenant Governor

• each Island has its own separate international vehicle registration (GBG - Guernsey, GBA - Alderney, GBJ - Jersey, GBM - Isle of Man), internet domain (.gg - Guernsey, .je - Jersey, .im - Isle of Man),

THE COMMONWEALTH

Flag of the Commonwealth

Loose, informal, voluntary association of INDEPENDENT STATES that regard the British Queen as the non-political Head of the Commonwealth.

“family of nations”

• most of the member states of the Commonwealth used to be British colonies

• membership is open to any country that had former links to the UK or any Commonwealth country

• members must recognize the Queen as the Head of the Commonwealth.

• The Commonwealth as no legal personality, nor three branches of power.

- 53 independent countries with one fourth of the world's population

- 2 billion people

- 2^nd largest international organization next to the UN

Links between the UK and Commonwealth countries

• currency agreements

• English being the common language (official in many cases)

• heritage

• Westminster system of government

• similarities in administration and judicial and legal systems

• similarities in educational systems

• education and science cooperation

• driving on the left

• national sports (cricket, rugby)

• Commonwealth Games, every four years (since 1930) - “Friendly Games”

• the world's second largest multi-sport event

• “the only games that have a shared language”

STRUCTURE

The Queen - the Head of the Commonwealth

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CHOGM - Commonwealth Heads of Government Meeting (biennial conference since 1971 issuing the Declaration of Intent - outlining plans for future cooperation)

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1. The Commonwealth Secretariat (est. 1965; Marlborough House, London) headed by Secretary General - central body for consultation and cooperation, acting as a civil service

Queen as the Head of the Commonwealth

• The Queen is the non-political Head of the whole Commonwealth

• every Christmas the Queen broadcasts a message to the Commonwealth.

• Commonwealth Day (est. 1977); second Monday in March - the Queen delivers the Commonwealth Day Message which is uniquely drafted without ministerial advice; also attends the Commonwealth Day Observance in Westminster Abbey.

• pays numerous visits to Commonwealth countries

HISTORY

1867 - establishment of the first DOMINION, i.e. a self-governing colony - Canada through the British North America Act; followed by: Australia (1901), New Zealand (1907), Newfoundland (1907) and South Africa (1910), Irish Free State (1921-1937).

1917 - the name Commonwealth appears for the first time to describe the links between Britain and self-governing dominions during WWI.

1926 - Imperial Conference: UK and its dominions agree to be "equal in status, in no way subordinate one to another in any aspect of their domestic or external affairs, though united by common allegiance to the Crown, and freely associated as members of the British Commonwealth of Nations."

1930 - first Commonwealth Games in Hamilton, Canada

1931 - STATUTE OF WESTMINSTER - creation of the British Commonwealth of Nations and formal definition of relationships. Dominions to be separately represented in the League of Nations.

- self-governing

- united pledge allegiance to the Crown

- legislative independence of the UK

After 1945 - the dismantle of the British Empire within three decades

1. nowhere the British were forced to leave - power was transferred with help and agreement of the British government

2. most of the independent countries accepted further connection with Britain

1947 - India and Pakistan declare that they wish to adopt a republican constitution but also wanted to remain within the Commonwealth.

This was accepted in the London Declaration agreed at the Commonwealth Heads of Government Meeting in 1949, provided that India accepted The King (George VI) 'as the symbol of the free association of the independent Member Nations and as such Head of the Commonwealth', but not as Head of State - the birth of modern COMMONWEALTH. The Declaration drops the word `British' and `Dominion'.

1957 - Ghana becomes independent as the first African country ruled by an African majority - the “Lodestar of Africa”

1960 - PM Harold Macmillan gives his “Wind of Change” Speech to the Parliament of South Africa in Cape Town, expressing British intentions to grant independence to many British African colonies:

The wind of change is blowing through this continent, and whether we like it or not, this growth of national consciousness is a political fact. We must all accept it as a fact, and our national policies must take account of it.

LECTURE 5 ATTACHMENT 2 Harold Macmilan Wind of Change Speech

1962 - Jamaica becomes independent - the first former British colony in the Caribbean

1962 - Samoa becomes independent - the first former British colony in the Pacific

1971 -, the Singapore Declaration of Commonwealth Principles - “We believe that international co-operation is essential to remove the causes of war, promote tolerance, combat injustice and secure development … We are convinced that the Commonwealth is one of the most fruitful associations for these purposes … (and that it can) provide a constructive example of the multi-national approach which is vital …based on consultation, discussion and co-operation.”

1991 - Harare Commonwealth Declaration (Harare principles) - promotion of democracy and good governance, human rights and the rule of law, and sustainable economic and social development.

Membership of the Commonwealth

Membership criteria:

• compliance with the Harare principles

• being fully sovereign

• recognizing the monarch of the Commonwealth realms as the Head of the Commonwealth.

• acceptance the English language as the means of Commonwealth communication

• respecting the wishes of the general population vis-à-vis Commonwealth membership

Three groups of Commonwealth members:

1. Commonwealth Realms - countries with monarchial constitutions recognizing the British Queen as the Head of State represented by the Governor General:

Antigua and Barbuda, Australia, the Bahamas, Barbados, Belize, Canada, Fiji, Grenada, Jamaica, Mauritius, New Zealand, Papua New Guinea, Solomon Islands, St. Kitts and Nevis, St. Lucia, St. Vincent and the Grenadines, Tuvalu.

2. Republics:

Bangladesh, Botswana, Cameroon, Cyprus, Dominica, The Gambia, Ghana, Guyana, India, Kenya, Kiribati, Malawi, the Maldives, Malta, Mozambique, Namibia, Nauru, Nigeria, Pakistan, Seychelles, Sierra Leone, Singapore, Sri Lanka, South Africa, Tanzania, Trinidad and Tobago, Uganda, Vanuatu, Zambia.

3. Monarchies:

Brunei, Lesotho, Malaysia, Samoa, Swaziland, Tonga.

AIMS and FUNCTIONS

• strengthening democracy by good government

• promoting human rights

• working for social and economic development of poorer countries

ACHIEVEMENTS and FAILURES

• Britain's concern about the Commonwealth had an impact on its decision not to join the EEC in 1957.

• Pakistan withdrew in 1972 following the war over Kashmir with India - an instance of two member states at war.

• 1980s - proposals from Conservative MPs to withdraw Britain from the Commonwealth - a paradox

LECTURE 5 ATTACHMENT 3 Commonwealth Day Information Pack

ANGLO-AMERICAN “SPECIAL RELATIONSHIP”

• The USA has been Britain's closest ally since WWII.

• The United States and the United Kingdom share the world's largest foreign direct investment partnership.

• The United States is the largest single investor in the U.K. and vice versa.

The term “special relationship” was used first by Winston Churchill in 1946

It has always been SPECIAL (“most important bilateral relationship”) for Britain - for the United States it has been one of many relationships

For Britain:

• concern to maintain American military and security commitment to Europe and NATO

• concern its own profile in bargaining with the EU

For USA:

• Britain as a bridge to Europe

The bases of the relationship:

• common language

• cultural traditions

• history

• military partnership

• GOOD personal friendships between some U.K. Prime Ministers and U.S. Presidents

• Winston Churchill - Franklin Delano Roosevelt

• Harold Macmillan - John F. Kennedy

• Margaret Thatcher - Ronald Reagan

• George W. Bush - Tony Blair

• POOR personal relationships between others:

• Anthony Eden - Dwight Eisenhower

• Harold Wilson - Lyndon B. Johnson

In fact, after WWII the special relationship varied according to circumstances:

• 1950-1953- Korean War - U.K. the second largest contributor after the U.S.

• 1956 - Suez Crisis drawing criticism from the USA

• Vietnam War - Harold Wilson (1964-1970) refuses sending British troops to Vietnam - (Australia and New Zealand send their troops)

• 1970s - 1980s - Britain being “the biggest aircraft carrier in the world” - more USAF than RAF planes in Britain

• 1976 - Queen participates in the celebration of 200 years of the Declaration of Independence

• 1982 Falklands War - U.S. support

• 1983 U.S. Invasion of Grenada (“Operation Urgent Fury”) - criticized by Margaret Thatcher

• 1986 - U.S. bombing of Libya (“Operation El Dorado Canyon”) - Britain provides airfields form U.S. aircraft

• 1991 the Gulf War - in coalition with the U.S.

• 2003 the Iraq War - in coalition with the U.S.

THE UNITED KINGDOM IN THE EUROPEAN UNION

“reluctant membership”

Britain's bumpy road to the EEC

1957 - Treaty of Rome - the EEC established without Britain

1950s - the Commonwealth and “special relationship” given more importance in Britain than the European integration

1960 - European Free Trade Association (EFTA) established on British initiative as an alternative to the more integrated EEC

1963, 1967 - Charles de Gaulle's double veto on Britain's accession to the EEC

1973 - Britain, Ireland and Denmark join the EEC - the 1^st enlargement

1975 - post-accession referendum in Britain (THE FIRST REFERENDUM IN BRITISH POLITICAL HISTORY!)

Referendum question:

"Parliament has decided to consult the electorate on the question whether the UK should remain in the European Economic Community: Do you want the UK to remain in the EEC?"

67.2% in favor of continued membership, 32.8% against, turnout 64.5%

Britain's position in the EU

• 78 Members of the European Parliament (MEPs) (out of 785) elected every five years

• 29 votes in the Council of the European Union (out of 345)

Britain's “reluctance” in the EU:

• objections to its contribution to the EU budget -so-called “British rebate” negotiated by Margaret Thatcher

• Thatcher's Bruges Speech of 1988 - the manifesto of British euroscepticism and the establishment of the Bruges Group - the leading eurosceptic think tank in Europe

LECTURE 5 ATTACHMENT 4 Thatcher's Bruges Speech

• objections to agricultural and fisheries policy

• general opposition to greater political integration, e.g. European Constitution, “federal superstate”

• staying out of the euro

• out of the Schengen Agreement (together with Ireland)

• opting out of the Charter of Fundamental Rights of the European Union for the fear it might be used to alter British labor law

• retaining national veto on the Police and Justice Cooperation in Criminal Matters (together with Ireland)

• British Eurosceptic press (The Daily Mail, The Sun, Daily Express, News of the World), The Daily Telegraph, The Times)

Cover of The Spectator magazine, 1975, before the post-accession referendum in Britain.

QUESTIONS

1. Name three elements of British foreign policy after World War Two.

2. Name four international conflicts involving Britain after WWII.

3. Name five international organizations that Britain is a member of.

4. What are the British Overseas Territories? Provide some characteristics.

5. What are the major links between the UK and Commonwealth countries?

6. Describe the role of the Queen as the Head of the Commonwealth.

7. What are the Commonwealth realms? Give four examples.

8. Define the concept of “special relationship” in British foreign policy.

9. Why is Britain called a “reluctant member” of the European Union?

Dr Tomasz Skirecki

Wiedza o krajach angielskiego obszaru językowego: WIELKA BRYTANIA

LECTURE 5: Britain and the world

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