cluster three

Case Studies

Early Childhood: “Pinch”

Elementary School: “Silly Students” Middle School: “Study Hall”

High School: “Bending the Rules”

Module 9: Behavioral Learning Theories

Outline and Learning Goals 160 Assumptions of Behavioral Learning

Theories 161 Classical Conditioning 161 Operant Conditioning 163 Applications: Applied Behavior Analysis 169 Summary 172 Key Concepts 172 Case Studies: Reflect and Evaluate 173

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C L U S T E R

EARLY CHILDHOOD MIDDLE SCHOOL HIGH SCHOOL ELEMENTARY SCHOOL

learning theories

Module 10: Social Cognitive Theory

Outline and Learning Goals 175 Assumptions of Social Cognitive

Theory 176 Observational Learning 176 Personal Factors in Learning 179 Summary 184 Key Concepts 184 Case Studies: Reflect and Evaluate 184

Module 11: Information Processing

Outline and Learning Goals 186 Assumptions of the Information

Processing Approach 187 The Three-stage Model of Information

Processing 187 Applications to Teaching 197 Summary 201 Key Concepts 202 Case Studies: Reflect and Evaluate 202

3

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152

Prepare:

As you read the case, make notes:

1. WHO are the primary participants in the case? Describe them.

2. WHAT is taking place?

3. WHERE is the case taking place? Is the environment a factor?
4. WHEN is the case taking place? Is the timing a factor?

Miss Rana (RAH-nah) is the head teacher at the local preschool for at-risk children. The preschool is state-funded and typically includes children ages three to five from lower-SES homes, from single-parent families, and/or with developmental delays. Arriving early one morning to prepare the art area for a sponge painting activity, Rana begins setting up space for pairs of children to share art materials. Miss Amber, the assistant teacher, arrives and provides the list of paired children that she has prepared for the art project.

Rana reads the list and says, “I’m glad to see you paired Reagan and Emily for art. Emily has been so reluctant to participate in art ever since that day when she spilled the paint all over Billy’s shoes.”

“Yes,” Amber replies. “I thought it would be a good idea. Reagan loves art. I just hope she can keep her hands to herself today.”

Reagan, a three-year-old, is one of the youngest children in the preschool. Although Reagan generally is a well-behaved child, during circle time she has a habit of pinching the children sitting next to her on the rug. Reagan does not attempt to conceal her mis-behavior and readily admits to it if confronted by her teachers. Rana and Amber first tried ignoring the behavior, but that only resulted in a number of other children pinching their classmates. They have also tried telling her to stop pinching the other children and have even removed her from the rug area a few times, with no result. Recently, they decided to give Reagan a sticker at the end of the day contingent on no instances of pinching anyone. Stickers typically are used as spe- cial rewards when a child does something that deserves recognition. Only once during the past three weeks has Reagan earned the sticker—every other day she has pinched at least one child.

Yesterday afternoon,

Rana and Amber discussed the issue

1

Early Childhood

2

Pinch

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again and decided to try yet another strategy. They hope to “catch” Reagan early in circle time, before she has a chance to pinch, praise her for keeping her hands to herself, and then every couple of minutes praise Reagan and the other children for keeping their hands to themselves.

As the children begin to enter the classroom, Rana gives her usual morning greeting: “Good morning boys and girls!”

Emily enters the room and quietly walks to her space along the wall, where she hangs her coat on the hook and places her book bag below her name. As Emily sits down at her special spot on the rug, Amber greets her. “Hello Emily. I sure like the way you put your things away and sat down. You look ready to begin this morning.”

As usual, Emily does not respond to this praise. However, a number of other children who were wandering off to inspect the art supplies quickly scramble to their own special spots on the rug. Reagan has just sat down, and Rana quickly says, “Reagan, I like the way you have your hands in your lap—look every-one—Reagan is giving a wonderful example of how to sit with our hands to ourselves during circle time.” Reagan’s face clearly displays her pride at being the good example.

Circle time includes doing the calendar and weather, followed by Amber reading the morning book. Amber holds the children’s attention during the story by asking them to clap each time they hear the word leaf. The teachers praise Reagan a number of times—along with many of the other children—for sitting with her hands to herself and for clapping along with the story. After she finishes reading, Amber says, “Yesterday we read a different story about leaves. How is today’s story like that one? How is it different from the one we read yesterday?” Several children raise their hands to share their ideas. Following circle time, the children are told who will be their partner for art that day and are sent to the space designated for them.

Amber stands in front of four pairs of children, while Rana stands in front of the other four pairs of children. “Eyes up here,” Rana says, as she notices some of the children whispering to each other. Each teacher holds up the art supplies and demonstrates how to gently put the leaf-shaped sponge into the paint tray and then gently place the sponge on their large piece of paper. Rana tells the children to begin painting and quietly observes the interactions between Reagan and Emily.

Reagan asks Emily, “Do you want the red paint first?”

“Um, you pick,” Emily quietly replies.

“Red is my favorite color,” says Reagan. When Emily does not respond, Reagan asks, “What is your favorite color?”

Emily answers, “I don’t know. I guess pink.”

Emily has too much paint on her sponge and gets too much paint on her paper. Under her breath, she says: “I can’t do it.”

Rana approaches and offers a few words of encouragement.

Reagan, mimicking the teacher, offers similar comments, such as “I like it too.”

The two children continue to talk and share the art supplies. As Rana walks around the room to provide assistance, she notices that Reagan and Emily are talking and giggling. She thinks about how she has never heard Emily giggle during class.

Rana quickly takes the opportunity to encourage Emily: “You are doing a wonderful job! You are quite a little artist!”

Assess

3 1. Why do you think the initial attempts to stop Reagan from pinching were unsuccessful?

2. Do you think the teachers would have reacted the same way if a boy were pinching other children? Why or why not?

3. Why do you think Amber makes a point of getting the children’s attention when a new activity begins? What might happen if she failed to do this?

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EARLY CHILDHOOD MIDDLE SCHOOL HIGH SCHOOL

ELEMENTARY SCHOOL

154

Prepare:

As you read the case, make notes:

1. WHO are the primary participants in the case? Describe them.

2. WHAT is taking place?

3. WHERE is the case taking place? Is the environment a factor?
4. WHEN is the case taking place? Is the timing a factor?

AA idan Lindsay is in his first year of teaching at a small rural school where most students are from lower- to middle-SES homes. His fourth-grade class has 25 students, with about equal numbers of boys and girls. Aidan designed his room so that desks are arranged in clusters of three or four, which allows students to work together on some projects. The students seem to like this arrangement. However, some disruptive behaviors have occurred throughout the first few weeks of the school year.

Aidan is seeking the assistance of the other fourth-grade teachers, Anna Vargas and Elsa Klendworth. During their lunch break in the teachers’ lounge, he asks, “What do the two of you do with a group of three children who do not seem interested in anything but talking with one another and giving silly answers to questions?”

Elsa presses him for more information. “What exactly do you ask of your students, and how do they respond?”

“Many times I will show the students how to do something, such as multiplication, on the white board and then ask them to complete worksheets,” Aidan says. “I inform them that they should not copy the work of others in their group, but I encourage them to ask others for help. This typically works well. I have seen students showing other students how to complete the problems. However, these three children, Billy, Jason, and Megan, all pretend to help each other by talking and pointing to the worksheets, but as I walk past they obviously are talking about other things and typically end up getting little work done. In addition, their laughing and giggling disrupt the other students, particularly the fourth child in their group, Sara. Of course, given this silly behavior, it is not surprising that Billy, Jason, Megan, and Sara all received low scores on the math quiz I gave last week.”

Silly Students

Elementary School

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BC

Anna asks, “What have you tried in order to get them back on track?”

“Well, of course, I have repeatedly told them to calm down and get back to work. I have also tried ignoring their laughing and giggling, but they are just too disruptive to the other children around them. So yesterday I started taking away their recess time when their work is not completed, but I don’t know yet how well that is going to work,” says Aidan.

“I would suggest that you give them extra time to talk with one another only if their project is completed,” Anna suggests.

Elsa adds, “Yes, I might even begin by telling them that if they can just be quiet and not disrupt the other children you will give them a few minutes at the end of the period to talk with one another quietly.”

Aidan leaves the teachers’ lounge somewhat skeptical about rewarding students for doing what all the other students already are doing, but he decides to try these suggestions because Elsa and Anna have been teaching much longer than he has and have been very supportive and helpful over the past several weeks.

As the children enter the classroom after their lunch and recess time, Aidan asks them to sit in their seats. On the white board he demonstrates the day’s lesson on multiplication. As the children begin working in their groups, he walks over to the table where Billy, Jason, Megan, and Sara are working.

“I have a new idea,” Aidan says. “If the three of you can work quietly for the next ten minutes while others are also trying to complete their math worksheets, I will give you three minutes to talk with one another. You can use quiet voices to help one another, but you need to stay focused on the math work. Sound good?”

The following week at lunch in the teachers’ lounge, Elsa asks, “So, how is that problem with your group of silly students going?”

“Oh, your suggestions worked like a charm. The three misbehaving students are paying more attention and actually helping one another finish their work so they have time to talk together. However, now the problem is the fourth student in that group, Sara. She has become increasingly frustrated that the other students finish before her. Many times I hear her say ‘I can’t do it’ or ‘This is too hard.’ She even went so far as to throw her pencil down on the table and start crying.

“I have tried to explain to her that she does good work and should ask for help if she needs it, but Sara insists that she is not good at math. Do you have any suggestions?” asks Aidan.

“What if you make the three minutes contingent on all four students completing the assignment?” Elsa suggests. “Then the students will be more interested in helping Sara, and Sara will not need to ask for their help.”

“Yes,” Anna agrees. “I would also suggest that you take as many opportunities as possible to prove to Sara that she is doing well. You can continue to tell her that she is doing well, but you should also remind her of previous work she has completed well—maybe even start a bulletin board where you can spotlight the students’ work.”

1. Do you think having fourth-grade students “help” each other is a good idea? Why or why not?

2. Do you think Aidan’s reliance on the other teachers is a sign of incompetence? Why or why not?

3. If you were the teacher in this classroom, what strategies would you use to help the three disruptive students focus on their schoolwork?

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EARLY CHILDHOOD MIDDLE SCHOOL HIGH SCHOOL

ELEMENTARY SCHOOL

Assess

156

Prepare:

As you read the case, make notes:

1. WHO are the primary participants in the case? Describe them.

2. WHAT is taking place?

3. WHERE is the case taking place? Is the environment a factor?
4. WHEN is the case taking place? Is the timing a factor?

Milos Havel is one of three seventh-grade teachers at a middle school in a small but ethnically diverse city. The three seventh-grade teachers cover reading and social studies in their own “homeroom” classes, but each one instructs all the seventh graders in one subject area (math, English, or science). Milos’s specialty is English.

Milos is worried about Jamie, a student in his homeroom class. Jamie appears to be a very bright child when he applies himself. He readily participates in class by explaining difficult concepts and providing good examples of the material, particularly during his favorite subject, social studies. His difficulties appear to be in the sixth-period mathematics class. Although Gladys DeBrick does not complain about Jamie’s compliance in her class, his academic performance is weak. He rarely finishes his homework on time and appears to have fallen behind in the subject. For example, he lacks an understanding of basic mathematical principles taught the previous year in sixth grade.

During their weekly Thursday morning meeting, the three seventh-grade teachers discuss their students’ performance. It turns out that Gladys’s student Jasamine is having problems completing her English assignments for Milos’s sixth period. Much like Jamie, Jasamine does not have many behavioral problems within the classroom. Nor does she appear to struggle with the content of Milos’s English class. Nevertheless, Jasamine typically doesn’t have the homework completed.

Milos and Gladys develop a plan. Milos will help Jamie with his math homework during the study hall period immediately following Jamie’s sixth-period math class. In turn, Gladys will help Jasamine with her English homework during the study hall period immediately following Jasamine’s sixth-period English class. Although both need to attend to other students during the study hall period, Milos and Gladys will try to give Jamie and Jasamine as much extra help with homework as possible.

Several issues arise while trying to implement this plan with Jamie. On the first day, Milos walks by Jamie’s desk and states, “I will be around to help you with your mathematics homework, so take out the assignment and get started.”

Jamie replies, “I thought we could talk about the social studies lesson you gave today, like we usually do.”

“No, I think your time is much better spent completing your math homework while you are here and have my help available to you,” says Milos.

“I don’t think I have the worksheets Ms. DeBrick gave us to complete. I guess I will have to do them tomorrow. So we can discuss social studies, right?” asks Jamie.

This pattern of forgetting the homework assignment and diverting the conversation to social studies continues for several days. Finally, Milos tells Jamie that he will not discuss social studies with him during study hall until his math homework is complete. After only one day of Milos’s refusing to talk with him about social studies, Jamie begins to bring his math homework. Although he struggles with completing the problems, he puts forth effort to complete the assignments so he will have a few extra minutes at the end of the class study hall period to discuss social studies with Milos.

In Gladys’s homeroom, the plan works wonderfully from the start. Jasamine seems to enjoy the extra attention she receives in completing her English assignments. Gladys notices that Jasamine does not seem to have difficulty completing the work once she has

Middle School

Study Hall

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B+

given Jasamine an example or two to get her started. Gladys decides to pair Jasamine with a student who excels in English, so that Gladys is able to spend her time helping the other children and preparing her lessons for the next day.

1. Why do you think the initial plan to get Jamie to complete his math homework during study hall was unsuccessful? Why did the same plan work so well for Jasamine’s English homework?

2. Do you think that Gladys’s plan to have another student help Jasamine will be as effective? Why or why not? Would this strategy work for Jamie?

3. How might memory play an important role in completing math problems for Gladys’s class? How might memory be important for completing assignments for Milos’s English class?

Assess

EARLY CHILDHOOD MIDDLE SCHOOL HIGH SCHOOL

ELEMENTARY SCHOOL

%

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158

Prepare:

As you read the case, make notes:

1. WHO are the primary participants in the case? Describe them.

2. WHAT is taking place?

3. WHERE is the case taking place? Is the environment a factor?
4. WHEN is the case taking place? Is the timing a factor?

D an Hardy is an African-American teacher of U.S. history, the only subject he has taught during his five years at a high school in an upper socioeconomic community. The students are highly motivated to do well and to continue their education at the top universities in the state. Dan is well liked by most of his students. He spends a lot of class time providing examples of how to relate concepts in history to current events. He also uses group work during class, such as debating a controversial historical issue and predicting what would have happened if a particular event had not occurred. Dan assigns homework that typically involves thinking and writing about issues discussed during class. Because his assignments are thought-provoking and because most of his students are eager to learn, Dan rarely has problems with students completing the assignments.

At the beginning of Dan’s third class period, he asks students to pass their homework forward to the front person in each row. As he reaches the third row, he notices that Jason’s assignment is missing from the stack. This is the fourth day in the past two weeks that his assignment has not been completed. Jason was told after missing his last assignment that one more incomplete grade would earn him a trip to detention.

After class Dan asks Jason to stay for a minute. Dan asks, “Why didn’t you turn in your homework assignment today?”

“I don’t know,” Jason answers. “I guess I forgot about it, Mr. Hardy.”

Dan wonders whether he really forgot about it or instead was having difficulty understanding the material or organizing his thoughts. “Well, you will need to spend one hour in detention after school today to complete the missed work. Please be sure to stop by the office and notify your parents that you will be home late today,” Dan requests.

“I can’t stay today—I have basketball practice,” Jason replies. “If I miss practice, I will have to miss the game Friday night.”

“Well, I warned you after your last missed homework assignment that you would be sent to detention if you missed another assignment,” Dan states. “You were aware of this classroom rule. I suggest you spend your hour today completing your missing assignments for the class.”

When the last bell rings at the end of the day, Jason walks to Coach Gil Hanson’s office and tells him why he will not be at basketball practice. Gil, upset that Jason’s detention would mean facing the school’s archrival without a star player, offers to discuss the issue with Jason’s teacher and with the principal, Alice Krug.

In the principal’s office, the coach makes his case to Dan and Alice. “I understand that Jason has missed some assignments in history class and is now in detention,” he says. “As a result, he is missing basketball practice today and, by the rules, cannot play in Friday night’s game. Is there something we can work out as a compromise?”

Alice turns to Dan and says formally, “What is your class rule about completing assignments and detention?”

“The rule is four incompletes result in detention until the student no longer has four incompletes. I rarely need to enforce this rule, but Jason is missing four assignments,” Dan explains. “I gave him a warning when he had missed three assignments, but he came to class again today without his homework.”

High School

Bending the Rules

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EARLY CHILDHOOD MIDDLE SCHOOL HIGH SCHOOL ELEMENTARY SCHOOL

Assess

“Can’t you make an exception in this case?” Gil suggests. “Jason is overall a good student and an excellent athlete.”

Alice interjects, “I believe that a rule is a rule. If this is the system that Dan has set up for his class, then we must all support his efforts. Jason will not be at practice and hence cannot play in the game Friday night.”

“Well, the no practice–no game rule is my own team rule, not a school rule. I am willing to bend the rule in this case. The rule has been bent before for cases of illness and family vacations,” Gil replies.

“I was not aware of that,” the principal says. “I suggest that you change the rule to better reflect the practice. However, you and I can discuss this issue at a later date, in private.”

Back in detention, Jason begins to gather his notes for the assignments he did not complete during the past few weeks. He quickly realizes that he has not taken good notes and cannot remember clearly Dan’s demonstration of how to complete the assignment. Nor has he really participated with his classmates during the group work. Jason remembers that he did not do well in history during middle school because he wasn’t good at keeping dates and facts straight.

1. Was the strategy of placing Jason in detention helpful to Jason? Why or why not?

2. Do you think the teachers would have reacted the same way if a girl had been experiencing the same problems with homework and missing an extracurricular event? Why or why not?

3. What strategies would you use to help you remember dates and facts in history, and what types of skills or strategies would you need to complete Dan’s homework assignments?

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