Giftedness
and Creativity: Are They More Than Just Intelligence?
Giftedness
n Characteristics
n Identifying Giftedness
n Applications: Teaching Gifted Students
1.
Describe
how intelligence might be related to giftedness and creativity.
2. Discuss the characteristics you would look for in identifying students as gifted.
3.
Explain
how factors such as race, socioeconomic status, and gender affect the
identification of giftedness.
4.
Discuss
the approaches that can be used effectively to meet the needs of
gifted students.
Creativity
n Characteristics
n Applications: Promoting Creativity in the
Classroom
Summary Key Concepts Case Studies: Reflect and Evaluate
n
Identifying
Creativity
5.
Discuss
the characteristics you would look for in identifying creative
students.
6.
Discuss
the practices you would use to encourage creative expression in the
classroom.
boh7850x_CL7Mod23.p411-423.indd 411 boh7850x_CL7Mod23.p411-423.indd 411 10/9/08 9:10:29 AM
10/9/08 9:10:29 AM
412
cluster
seven
learner
differences
>><<
Successful
intelligence: See page 398.
The
theory of multiple intelligences: See page 398.
>><<
Bodily-kinesthetic
Ability. The ability to use one’s body, such as in dance and athletics, is one of eight intelligences that people can possess, according to MI theory.
Students with giftedness or creativity present teachers with unique challenges. They learn in a qualitatively different way than other students their age—often viewing the world and processing information differently and solving problems in unique ways. Teachers need to understand the nature of giftedness and creativity in order to best meet the needs of these students and provide experiences suited to optimal learning. Before we discuss the characteristics of giftedness and creativity and how teachers can identify and teach students with these talents, we need to describe how giftedness and creativity are related to intelligence.
When we think of giftedness, we typically think of someone who is extremely smart and who performs at an exceptional level in school and on standardized tests. A person may be “smart” in this way but not gifted, because giftedness involves much more than just high cognitive ability. Howard Gardner’s theory of multiple intelligences (MI theory) and Robert Sternberg’s theory of successful intelligence—two contemporary theories of intelligence—consider giftedness to be an extension of intelligence. However, intelligence in these theories is multidimensional, comprising several independent but interacting abilities.
According to MI theory, all individuals have strengths and weaknesses in eight separate intelligences:
1. Linguistic (using words to describe or communicate ideas).
2. Logical-mathematical (reasoning, perceiving patterns in numbers, using numbers effectively).
3. Spatial (accurately perceiving and transforming the visual-spatial world).
4. Bodily-kinesthetic (expertise in using one’s body).
5. Musical (recognizing components of music, expressing musical forms, using music to express ideas).
6. Interpersonal (accurately perceiving and appropriately responding to the emotions of other people).
7. Intrapersonal (introspection, discriminating one’s emotions and perceptions, knowing one’s strengths and limitations).
8. Naturalistic (recognizing and classifying living things, sensitivity to features of the natural world).
Individuals who are gifted rapidly move through a domain (math, writing, etc.) because they have certain strengths among their intelligences and have had environmental opportunities to nurture those strengths (Gardner, 1993).
According to the theory of successful intelligence, all individuals possess differing degrees of three abilities (Sternberg, 1996b):
1.
Analytical
(analyzing, choosing strategies, evaluating, monitoring outcomes).
2.
Creative
(generating novel ideas for solving problems).
3. Practical (applying knowledge to problems, implementing options and solutions, and making them work).
Individuals are intelligent if they find ways to balance the strengths and weaknesses in their abilities in order to adapt to, shape, and select environments in which to succeed (Sternberg & Grigorenko, 2003). In the theory of successful intelligence, giftedness is defined in relation to intelligence. Individuals are gifted if they are able to successfully transform their life experiences into successful outcomes using the abilities they have been given (Sternberg, 2003). A person can be gifted analytically, creatively, or practically.
The relationship between intelligence and creativity remains controversial. Consider five hypotheses that attempt to explain this relationship (Sternberg & O’Hara, 1999):
1.
Creativity is a subset of intelligence.
2.
Intelligence is a subset of creativity.
boh7850x_CL7Mod23.p411-423.indd 412 boh7850x_CL7Mod23.p411-423.indd 412 10/9/08 9:10:35 AM
10/9/08 9:10:35 AM
module twenty-three giftedness and creativity 413
Giftedness
and Creativity
Module 23 :
3. Creativity and intelligence are overlapping traits.
4. Creativity and intelligence are essentially the same thing. 5. Creativity and intelligence are completely unrelated.
Whether creativity is seen as a part of intelligence or separate from it depends on how we define both intelligence and creativity.
In MI theory and the theory of successful intelligence, creativity is a part of intelligence. For example, a person may be creative linguistically or musically in MI theory. In the theory of successful intelligence, a person may have a particular strength in creative abilities. However, a person may be intelligent according to these theories and not be particularly creative. For example, an individual may be successfully intelligent because he capitalizes on strengths in analytical skills and compensates for weaknesses in other areas, such as creative ability.
Also, intelligence may be required in varying degrees depending on the domain in which creativity is expressed (Getzels & Csikszentmihalyi, 1976). The level of intelligence needed to be a creative painter or actress may differ from the level of intelligence required to be a Nobel Prize–winning physicist (Sternberg & O’Hara, 1999). Despite a growing body of research in the field of creativity, there still is no clear consensus about the relationship between creativity and intelligence.
What do you think of when you hear the words gifted and creative? Think of as many characteristics of each as you can. Keep these in mind as you read about giftedness and creativity.
Characteristics
What
characteristics of giftedness
did you think of? Let’s examine some common traits of students who
are gifted:
n Students who are gifted master knowledge or skills in a particular domain earlier than their peers
(Steiner & Carr, 2003; Winner, 1996). They tend to have above-average ability in a particular subject, such as reading, mathematics, science, art, or music, or they have above-average ability overall (Renzulli, 2002).
n These students process information more efficiently, learn at a faster pace, use more effective strategies, and monitor their understanding better than their non-gifted peers (Davidson & Davidson, 2004; Robinson, 2000; Steiner & Carr, 2003).
n These students are independent learners. They require less direct instruction and support from teachers than their non-gifted peers (Winner, 1996). They also make discoveries on their own and solve problems in unique ways, showing flexibility and creativity in the way they apply their knowledge to novel situations.
n Students who are gifted possess a high level of interest and intrinsic motivation, an internal drive to learn and master topics within their area of giftedness (Winner, 2000). As preschoolers, children who are gifted display unusual curiosity, a high level of questioning, and an intense desire to learn (Creel & Karnes, 1988; Gross, 1993). School-age students who are gifted seek out challenging tasks, exhibit boredom at tasks they consider too easy, and have high personal standards for their performance, sometimes to the point of perfectionism (LoCicero & Ashbly, 2000; Parker, 1997).
According to Joseph Renzulli (1978b, 2002), an expert on giftedness, giftedness is not a set of distinct traits but an intermingling among three general characteristics that capture many of the traits just discussed.
1. Above-average ability, defined as:
n general ability, the capacity to process information, synthesize information, or think abstractly; or
n specific ability, the capacity to acquire knowledge or skill in a specialized domain such as mathematics, poetry, or science.
2.
High level of task commitment, or an individual’s energy or passion
for a particular task, problem, or domain. Higher levels result in
behaviors such as perseverance, endurance, hard work, practice, and
self-confidence in one’s ability to engage in a productive
endeavor (Renzulli, 1990).
>><<
Motivation:
See
page 256.
Information
processing: See page 186.
>><<
boh7850x_CL7Mod23.p411-423.indd 413 boh7850x_CL7Mod23.p411-423.indd 413 10/9/08 9:10:38 AM
10/9/08 9:10:38 AM
414
cluster
seven
learner
differences
3. High levels of creativity, the ability to generate many interesting and feasible ideas with respect to a particular problem or domain.
In Figure 23.1, which shows Renzulli’s three-ring conception of giftedness (1978b, 2002), giftedness is represented as the shaded area—the interaction among the three traits.
Renzulli
also describes two forms of giftedness. The first form,
schoolhouse
giftedness,
reflects skill in the performance of academic tasks. These are
students who have high overall cognitive ability and school
achievement, who excel in a particular domain such as reading or
science, or who are very efficient at processing information and
learning new things. The second form, creative-productive
giftedness,
reflects an individual’s ability to generate creative ideas. These
are students who enjoy engaging in exploration, creating, and problem
solving. As we discuss next, typical methods for identifying
giftedness tend to focus on schoolhouse giftedness.
Above
average ability
Task
commitment
Creativity
Figure
23.1: Renzulli’s Three-ring Conception of Giftedness. Giftedness
is the interaction among the three traits, shown as the shaded area
in the figure.
Identifying Giftedness
STANDARDIZED IQ SCORES
In 1926, Lewis Terman, creator of the Stanford-Binet IQ test, narrowly defined giftedness as an IQ score in the top 1% of the population, and for most of the twentieth century many experts equated giftedness with a score on an IQ test. IQ tests remain the primary tool for identifying students as eligible for gifted programs (Brown et al., 2005). As shown in Figure 23.2, students with IQ scores above 132 (top 2% of the population) or above 135 (top 1% of the population) may be eligible for gifted programs, although guidelines vary from state to state (Sternberg, 2002). Teacher nominations also are frequently used, but often these nominations serve only to qualify the student to take an IQ test, leaving test scores as the deciding factor (Renzulli, 1990). Identifying giftedness solely on the basis of test scores leads to biases in the selection of students for gifted programs. Students with creative or practical talents in areas such as the arts or leadership are overlooked when educators focus on the identification of schoolhouse giftedness (Renzulli, 1999).
When
this single-test score criterion approach is used, females, students
with learning disabilities, students from impoverished backgrounds,
and minority students typically are underidentified as eligible for
gifted programs (Freeman, 1995; Gallagher, 1992; McKenzie, 1986;
Stormont, Stebbins, & Holliday, 2001), for several reasons:
n
IQ
scores have the potential to discriminate against students from
minority groups—who typically do not score well on standardized
tests—by restricting their access to gifted programs (Banks, 2006;
Harris & Ford, 1991; Maker, 1996). Similarly, students from
low-income families are at risk for being overlooked for gifted
programs because they lack family and community resources to help
them develop their talents (Borland & Wright, 1994;
VanTassel-Baska, 1998). The development of gifted talents requires a
stimulating learning environment that provides students with
opportunities, resources, and encouragement (Renzulli, 2002).
n Teachers often overlook students from different ethnic backgrounds in favor of White, middle-class
students
because the characteristics of the latter more closely match
teachers’ expectations of what giftedness looks like—high
academic achievement and good behavior (Bonner, 2000).
n
Students with learning disabilities who also are gifted
typically are overlooked for gifted programs because their giftedness
may be “masked” by their disability, making them appear to have
average abilities (McCoach, Kehle, Bray, & Siegle, 2001;
Whit-more & Maker, 1985).
n
Girls are underrepresented in gifted programs— particularly
in high school, when the percentage of
>><<
IQ
tests: See page 400.
>><<
Cultural
issues in intelligence: See page 402.
Figure
23.2: Normal Distribution of IQ Scores. Giftedness
typically is identified by IQ scores in the top 1% or 2% of the IQ
distribution.
Percent
of cases under portions of the normal curve 55 70
2.14%
2.14%
13.59%
13.59%
34.13%
34.13%
85 100 115 130 145
–3SD –2SD –1SD
Average
score in distribution +1SD +2SD +3SD
0.13%
0.13%
boh7850x_CL7Mod23.p411-423.indd 414 boh7850x_CL7Mod23.p411-423.indd 414 10/9/08 9:10:38 AM
10/9/08 9:10:38 AM
module
twenty-three
giftedness
and creativity 415
female
participants declines (Read, 1991). Pressure to achieve peer
acceptance may lead adolescent girls to hide their cognitive
abilities in favor of social acceptance (Basow & Rubin, 1999;
Genshaft, Bireley, & Hollinger, 1995; Stormont et al., 2001).
MULTIDIMENSIONAL ASSESSMENT
Despite
the popularity of IQ tests for identifying students eligible for
gifted programs, current theory and research support a multifaceted
approach, as illustrated in the definition of giftedness found in
the No Child Left Behind (NCLB) Act of 2001 (PL 107–110):
The term “gifted and talented,” when used with respect to students, children, or youth, means students, children, or youth who give evidence of high achievement capability in areas such as intellectual, creative, artistic, or leadership capacity, or in specifi c academic fi elds, and who need services or activities not ordinarily provided by the school in order to fully develop those capabilities. (Title IX, Part A, Section 9101(22))
To identify students who are gifted—especially those from diverse backgrounds—educators need to move away from using standardized tests and include information from nontest sources (Renzulli, 2002). Experts recommend using a variety of criteria, as outlined here (Renzulli, 1990; Renzulli & Reis, 1991; Sisk, 1988):
1.
Educators first identify the traditional schoolhouse giftedness
using intelligence or achievement test scores. According to the
three-ring conception of giftedness, students would be considered to
have above-average ability if they perform in the top 15% to 20% in a
certain subject or skill domain (Renzulli, 1978b, 2002). This differs
markedly from requiring an IQ score in the top 1% or 2% of the
population, as discussed previously. Demonstration of above-average
performance in this case, however, should not be measured solely by
tests.
2.
Teachers may nominate students who display behaviors not measured by
tests, such as creativity, task commitment, interest, or special
talents. Students who are creative can come up with many different
solutions to problems, as assessed on tests of creativity. Students
who have high levels of task commitment are highly fascinated by a
certain topic or subject matter and have a strong drive to achieve in
that domain (Renzulli, 1978b, 2002). They may show characteristics
such as enthusiasm, self-confidence, goal-oriented behavior,
persistence, and freedom from feelings of inferiority (MacKinnon,
1965; Ogden, 1968; Roe, 1952; Terman, 1959).
3.
A selection committee then considers students who do not qualify
based on test scores or teacher nominations by evaluating alternative
criteria, such as parent or peer nominations, self-nominations, tests
of creativity, or evaluations of products (e.g., special projects,
grades, or portfolios).
4.
The selection committee also may consider nominations from
previous-year teachers to prevent overlooking students who may not
have been identified by present teachers.
Implementation
of such a multidimensional identification model would solve the
limitations of the single-test score criterion approach and would be
consistent with the multi-method approach proposed by federal
guidelines for identifying giftedness. Parents, teachers,
administrators, and students have reported satisfaction with this
type of approach (Renzulli, 1988).
Applications: Teaching Gifted Students
The current definition of giftedness in the NCLB Act states that, to fully develop their potential, students who are gifted need special activities or services not typically provided by schools. However, such students often receive no differentiated instruction for most of the educational activities during the school day, and, at best, teachers make only minor modifications to the curriculum to meet their needs (Archambault et al., 1993; Westberg, Archambault, Dobyns, & Salvin, 1993). Teachers have several approaches available to them in deciding how to meet the needs of students who are gifted.
Advanced instruction in topics or subjects. Teachers can choose to provide students who are gifted with more advanced instruction commensurate with their level of ability. Because a large proportion of the curriculum content in a given school year includes information and skills that gifted students already have mastered, gifted students benefit academically from accelerated instruction (Kulik & Kulik, 2004; Reis & Purcell, 1993; Rogers, 1993). Acceleration refers to either moving students quickly through grades (i.e., skipping grades) or providing instruction above grade level in one or two subjects and allowing students to remain with same-age peers for other subjects. Contrary to common
Inferiority is discussed in Erikson's theory of psychosocial development: See page 48.
Giftedness
and Creativity
Module 23 :
>><<
boh7850x_CL7Mod23.p411-423.indd 415 boh7850x_CL7Mod23.p411-423.indd 415 10/9/08 9:10:39 AM
10/9/08 9:10:39 AM
416
cluster
seven
learner
differences
beliefs, skipping grades does not appear to be as harmful to social and emotional well-being as once thought (Jones & Southern, 1991; Kulik & Kulik, 1984; Richardson & Benbow, 1990).
For students who have exceptional achievement in reading or math, teachers can use cross-grade grouping to provide accelerated instruction. In this method, gifted students are assigned to classes for reading or math with other students at different grade levels who have similar achievement levels. For example, a gifted second-grade student might go to a fourth-grade class for reading and math and spend the rest of the day with peers, or a gifted ninth grader might be allowed to take AP calculus with seniors and spend the rest of the day with peers.
Enrichment. Because students who are gifted need opportunities for developing critical thinking and problem-solving skills, they benefit greatly from enrichment activities (Johnson, 2000; Kulik, 1992; Rogers, 1991). Enrichment activi-ties allow them to broaden and deepen their knowledge beyond the regular curriculum. For optimal learning, teachers should create enrichment activities that satisfy the criteria listed in Table 23.1.
Implementing advanced instruction or enrichment. The decision to use acceleration or enrichment activities must take into account the student’s interests and learning preferences (independent work, hands-on activities, collaboration, etc.). When teachers uniformly give students more advanced and challenging work without regard for their needs and interests, students quickly learn that if they do their “best work” they are rewarded with more and harder work, perhaps negatively impacting motivation (Renzulli & Reis, 2004).
When choosing accelerated content or enrichment activities, teachers can use curriculum compacting, a useful tool for streamlining the material that needs to be covered with students who are gifted. This method involves evaluating students’ existing knowledge of the content in an instructional unit through a pretest and teaching only material aimed at those instructional objectives not met by the student (Reis & Renzulli, 2004; Renzulli, 1978a). For example, in a high school history class, the student might read the assigned material for a particular unit, demonstrate mastery by taking a test, and then contract with the teacher to do an independent project related to the student’s particular interests within the course.
Acceleration.
Acceleration
can be achieved by skipping a grade, which is not as harmful to a
student’s social and emotional well-being as once thought.
>><<
Cross-grade grouping: See page 376.
TA B L E 2 3 .1 Criteria for Successful Enrichment Activities Enrichment activities should (Renzulli, 1999): An example would be:
take into account the interests of the student allowing a third-grade student who is gifted to pursue an interest in astronomy by researching galaxies and creating a PowerPoint presentation
encourage
the use of authentic methods and resources, those used in real life
to investigate problems
be situated within the context of a real problem in order for meaningful learning to occur
doing
a project on alternative fuel sources to help solve global warming
using
computers, microscopes, library resources, interviewing, experiments
lead
to tangible solutions or products as a result of the activity
creating models, posters, presentations, plays
boh7850x_CL7Mod23.p411-423.indd 416 boh7850x_CL7Mod23.p411-423.indd 416 10/9/08 9:10:40 AM
10/9/08 9:10:40 AM
module twenty-three giftedness and creativity 417
tedness
and Creativity
Module 23 :
Curriculum compacting has several advantages for students who are gifted. It challenges these students by reducing redundancy in the curriculum (Renzulli & Reis, 2004). It also reduces the boredom and lack of motivation that sometimes lead to underachievement in students who are gifted (Baum, Renzulli, & Hebert, 1995). As a result, it leads to greater achievement for such students (Reis & Purcell, 1993; Renzulli, Smith, & Reis, 1982). Curriculum compacting has also been used successfully in many academic subjects with students of above-average ability who show proficiency in certain subjects but have not been identified as gifted (Reis & Purcell, 1993; Renzulli & Reis, 2004).
Can you recall a time when you were bored and thought that certain material was not challenging? Would you have preferred moving on to more challenging material or broadening your knowledge of the current material? Why?
Researchers have defined creativity in many different ways. A single, universally accepted definition of creativity does not exist. To understand the nature of creativity, let’s explore the creative process and the characteristics of individuals who are creative.
Creativity appears to happen suddenly and unpredictably in a burst of inspiration, as when we experience a “Eureka” moment (Davis, 2003). However, creativity actually occurs as part of a gradual process interspersed with many smaller insights (Gruber, 1981). Any creative endeavor often first requires irrational and unrestrained fantasy, followed in a second stage by cold logic, analysis, and evaluation (Davis, 2003). The complete fruition of most creative projects or ideas requires four stages (Osburn & Mumford, 2006; Wallas, 1926):
1.
Preparation:
gathering all the facts and existing ideas related to a problem and
churning ideas around in one’s mind.
2.
Incubation:
the relaxation period in which the problem does not go away but the
person can play, sleep, and do things to relax. For example,
Archimedes made his “Eureka” discovery while taking a bath,
mathematician Henry Poincaré had an insight while boarding a bus,
and chemist Frederick von Kekule discovered the molecular structure
of benzene while dreaming in bed.
3. Illumination: the “ah-ha” moment that hits a person when he or she least expects it.
4.
Verifi
cation:
the process whereby the person manifests, evaluates, and verifies
his or her new discovery.
Characteristics
Creativity
remains difficult to define because the concept is complex and
multifaceted, consisting of a variety of traits, skills, and
capacities (Runco, 1996).
n
Individuals
who are creative display divergent
thinking,
an ability to “think outside the box” by generating multiple
ideas or solutions to a problem. They express unusual thoughts,
experience the world in novel and original ways, and effect
significant changes in culture (Csikszentmihalyi, 1996). Divergent
thinking contrasts with the type of thinking typically emphasized
in schools—convergent
thinking,
or reaching one conclusion or right answer.
n
Creative
individuals prefer challenge and complexity, tolerate ambiguity, and
take risks (Colangelo & Davis, 2003; Sternberg, 2000). They are
not afraid to question assumptions and to redefine problems in new
and unconventional ways. They also allow themselves to make mistakes
and to take risks in creating ideas and products that initially may
not be popular. Many major discoveries and inventions, such as the
home computer, were considered risky ideas (Sternberg & Lubart,
1995).
n Creativity also requires domain-relevant knowledge (Ama-bile, 1983; Sternberg, 2006). Creative individuals need to
Divergent
Thinking. Individuals
who are creative are able to “think outside the box.” Copyright
© 2005 Randy Glasbergen. Used with permission.
boh7850x_CL7Mod23.p411-423.indd 417 boh7850x_CL7Mod23.p411-423.indd 417 10/23/08 3:58:48 PM
10/23/08
3:58:48 PM
Gif
418
cluster
seven
learner
differences
have
knowledge about the domain in order to create advances in it
(Sternberg & Lubart, 1999). For example, a scientist who
discovers a gene for obesity needs to have knowledge of genetics.
n Individuals who are creative exhibit curiosity and intrinsic motivation (Colangelo & Davis, 2003;
Sternberg, 2006). They pursue creative activity out of intense interest and enjoyment. They persist in the face of obstacles, have high self-effi cacy (a belief that they can perform a task), and are self-regulated learners (controlling their own learning) (Colangelo & Davis, 2003; Sternberg & Lubart, 1999).
Think
of specific situations or classes in which you have used convergent
thinking. Now think of specific situations or classes in which you
have used divergent thinking.
Identifying Creativity
How
can we measure an individual’s creativity level? The variety of
methods used to measure creativity has increased greatly in the past
25 years. Hundreds of tests, instruments, and rating scales have been
developed in recent years (for reviews, see Houtz & Krug, 1995;
Hunsaker & Callahan, 1995).
>><<
Self-efficacy
and self-regulation: See page 297.
Figure 23.3: Creativity Checklist. Schools often use creativity checklists like this one to help identify students who may be eligible for gifted programs.
Sense
of humor
This student demonstrates:
Checklist
for Creativity Characteristics 1 = Never 2 = Very rarely 3 = Rarely
4 = Occasionally 5 = Frequently 6 = Always
Student
School
Grade
Date
Teacher
Ability
to come up with unusual, unique, or clever responses
Adventurous
spirit or a willingness to take risks
Ability to generate a large number of ideas or solutions to problems or questions
Tendency
to see humor in situations that may not appear to be humorous to
others
Ability
to adapt, improve, or modify objects or ideas
Intellectual
playfulness, a willingness to fantasize and manipulate ideas
Noncomforming
attitude, does not fear being different
Subtotals
from each column
Total
the columns together for the grand total. Place the grand total in
this box:
Imaginative
thinking ability 1 2 3 4 5 6
1
2 3 4 5 6
1
2 3 4 5 6
1
2 3 4 5 6
1
2 3 4 5 6
1
2 3 4 5 6
1
2 3 4 5 6
1
2 3 4 5 6
1 2 3 4 5 6
boh7850x_CL7Mod23.p411-423.indd 418 boh7850x_CL7Mod23.p411-423.indd 418 10/9/08 9:10:44 AM
10/9/08 9:10:44 AM
module
twenty-three
giftedness
and creativity 419
As discussed earlier, creativity involves many personal characteristics. When identifying students who might be creative, educators often look for characteristics of creativity using checklists like the one shown in Figure 23.3.
They
also might use standardized measures of divergent thinking, such as
the Torrance Tests of Creative Thinking (TTCT) (Torrance, 1974). The
TTCT consists of relatively simple verbal and figural tasks that
involve skills such as divergent thinking and problem solving:
n asking questions (writing out all questions one can think of based on a drawing of a scene),
n
product
improvement (listing all possible ways to change a toy so children
would have more fun playing with it),
n unusual uses (listing interesting and unusual uses for an object), and
n
circles
(expanding empty circles into different drawings and giving each
drawing a title).
The TTCT can be scored using several criteria. Performance can be scored according to originality, or whether the idea is truly unique. Or it can be evaluated based on the number of ideas produced, called fluency. Individuals also can be evaluated based on their ability to change direction or to think in another way (flexibility) or on their ability to expand an idea to make it more intriguing and complex (elaboration). Paper-and-pencil tests like the TTCT provide a brief, easy-to-administer, objective assessment device. However, these forms of assessment may be undemanding and provide inadequate measures of creativity (Sternberg, 1999).
Some researchers have focused on the analysis of the products of creativity, rather than the process of creativity itself (Amabile & Hennessey, 1988; Parke & Byrnes, 1984). Using the consensual assessment technique, teachers collect samples of students’ creative work and then rate its creativeness (Hennessey, 1994). For example, in a study of elementary school children, teachers evaluated students’ creative writing using dimensions such as general creativity, how well they liked the story, novelty, imagination, logic, emotion, grammar, detail, vocabulary and straightforwardness. Their ratings were very similar, and this method provided an alternative to paper-and-pencil tests of creativity (Amabile & Hennessey, 1988).
Measuring
creativity from end results can be a difficult and subjective task.
Teachers or other evaluators must ask “How should the products be
assessed?” and “Are products or responses creative to the extent
that observers agree they are creative?” These types of questions
require that the individuals who are assessing the product be
familiar with the domain being assessed (Gardner, 2000). For example,
a person who is not considered an expert in art could hardly judge
the creativity of a given painting.
Applications: Promoting Creativity in the Classroom
The school environment, which often mirrors the expectations of society, plays a crucial role in the development of creativity—or its lack of development (Esquivel, 1995; Simonton, 2000). Too often the creative student’s performance in the classroom is based entirely on conformity and convergent thinking, because students typically are asked to find correct answers to problems posed by the teacher (Fleith, 2000; Schirrmacher, 2006). When teachers fail to understand and value creativity, students who are creative may withdraw or refuse to learn. Conversely, when creative students are taught and assessed in a way that values their creative abilities, their academic performance improves (Sternberg, Ferrari, Clinkenbeard, & Grigorenko, 1996).
Teacher attitudes. Creativity can be blocked or enhanced by certain emotional or affective conditions (Adams, 2001; Piirto, 2007). Students develop a sense of whether the teacher values or devalues the expression of creative ideas in the classroom by interpreting the teacher’s attitudes and behaviors. To develop creativity, students need to feel safe to share ideas, engage in divergent thinking, take risks, and make mistakes (Fleith, 2000; Sternberg & Williams, 1996). Teachers also can encourage creative expression by modeling creativity themselves through the types of questions they ask, by implementing problem-solving strategies, and by using innovative practices (Amabile, 1996; Rejs-kind, 2000).
Teaching strategies. Teachers can promote creativity by helping students discover their interests so they become intrinsically motivated to learn and explore in their area of interest (Sternberg, 2000).
Unusual Uses. How many uses can you think of for a paper clip?
Giftedness
and Creativity
Module 23 :
>><<
boh7850x_CL7Mod23.p411-423.indd 419 boh7850x_CL7Mod23.p411-423.indd 419 10/9/08 9:10:44 AM
10/9/08
9:10:44 AM
Problem solving: See page 248.
420
cluster
seven
learner
differences
Teachers
also can help students learn to discriminate between tasks for which
convergent thinking is appropriate and sufficient and those that
require a more creative engagement (Goswami & Goswami, 1999).
Creative thinking can be stimulated in several ways.
n
Teachers can ask questions that are divergent, puzzling, or
open-ended (requiring explanations or defense of positions)
(Gallagher & Gallagher, 1994; Marshall, 1994;
VanTassel-Baska,
1992);
n
Students can be encouraged to question assumptions and redefine
problems, because crea tive thinking involves knowing what
questions to ask and how to ask them rather than learning answers
to questions (Csikszentmihalyi, 1990; Sternberg & Williams,
1996);
n
Teachers
can also encourage students to generate and evaluate their own ideas,
because deciding which projects are worth pursuing is part of being
creative (Sternberg, 2000); and
n
Teachers
should also give students choices in their learning, such as having
them choose their own topics for papers or choose how to solve a
problem (Sternberg & Williams, 1996).
Teaching
activities.
Because creative insight does not happen instantaneously, teachers
need to allow time for students to practice creative thinking
(Sternberg & Williams, 1996). This means not rushing through
material but rather designing activities and assignments that
encourage students to exercise their creative abilities (Fleith,
2000). Cooperative learning, a practice in which students work
together in heterogeneous groups and collaborate on a project or an
assignment, can stimulate creativity (Sternberg & Williams,
1996). Students learn to see different points of view and to think
about the world from more than one perspective. Many widely used
curricular programs give students a context for developing creativity
(Morrison & Dungan, 1992; Piirto, 2007):
n Young Authors fairs, where children write their own books;
n
Odyssey
of the Mind events, where teams of children compete in categories of
problems to make new products;
n Invention Conventions, where children invent new items;
n History Day competitions, where children research and role-play historical characters; and
n
Science
Fair competitions, where students develop and conduct experiments.
Evaluating learning. Teachers can show that they value creativity by rewarding students for their creativity (Runco & Nemiro, 1994). Teachers cannot show students that they value creativity if they use tests that include only convergent questions (Sternberg & Williams, 1996). Rather, they should allow students to take risks and make mistakes without fear of negative evaluation, because recognizing when we have made a mistake and analyzing how to improve is part of creative thinking (Sternberg & Williams, 1996). Teachers should offer opportunities for unevaluated practice, provide constructive criticism, and de-emphasize the evaluation of performance (Rejskind, 2000). They also should praise students who have found ways to overcome obstacles, perhaps in an independent project, even if the final product has flaws (Sternberg & Williams, 1996).
Think of the grade level you intend to teach. Create a philosophy of teaching that specifies particular ways you will use some of the guidelines presented for promoting creativity in your classroom.
Developing Creativity. Educators can hold science fairs to promote creativity in students.
>><<
Cooperative learning: See page 365.
boh7850x_CL7Mod23.p411-423.indd 420 boh7850x_CL7Mod23.p411-423.indd 420 10/9/08 9:10:46 AM
10/9/08 9:10:46 AM
key concepts 421
Describe how intelligence might be related to giftedness and creativity. Current theories of intelligence, such as the theory of multiple intelligences and the theory of successful intelligence, propose that giftedness is much more than performing at an exceptionally high level on IQ tests. Because individuals have strengths and weaknesses in different abilities or domains, they can be gifted in a certain ability or domain. Whether creativity is a part of intelligence or separate from it depends on how we define intelligence and creativity. In current theories of intelligence, creativity is a part of intelligence, with a person having a particular strength in creative abilities or perhaps being creative in a certain domain. However, a person may be intelligent and not be particularly creative.
Discuss the characteristics you would look for in identifying students as gifted. Students who are gifted have above-average—and often exceptional—cognitive ability. They learn at a faster pace, master knowledge or skills in a particular domain earlier than their peers, and often are independent learners. They have high levels of task commitment and intrinsic motivation. They are curious, inquisitive, industrious, and self-confident. They seek out challenges, exhibit boredom with easy tasks, and set high personal standards, sometimes to the point of perfectionism. Students who are gifted also may have creative talents.
Discuss the approaches that can be used effectively to meet the needs of gifted students. Students who are gifted benefit from acceleration of content and enrichment activities. Acceleration can be accomplished by more advanced work in the same grade, cross-grade grouping, or skipping a grade. Teachers should identify curriculum content that already has been mastered and teach only material aimed at those objectives not met by the student. Because gifted students need opportunities for challenges, critical thinking, and independent work, enrichment experiences that meet their individual interests should be provided.
Discuss the characteristics you would look for in identifying creative students. Individuals who are creative often tolerate ambiguities, engage in divergent thinking, prefer challenge and complexity, take risks, and are curious and intrinsically motivated. They persist in the face of obstacles, are self-confident, and are self-regulated learners. Students who are creative may generate many ideas for answering a question or solving a problem, may produce work that is unique and original, or may expand on an idea to make it more intriguing and complex.
Discuss the practices you would use to encourage creative expression in the classroom. Teachers can encourage creative expression by establishing a classroom environment in which students feel comfortable taking intellectual risks, sharing ideas, coping with complexities, and making mistakes. Teachers should show that they value creativity, should model creative practices, and should reward students’ persistence at tackling challenging tasks. Teachers can promote creativity by asking open-ended questions, encouraging students to ask questions and to generate and evaluate their ideas, giving students choice in learning, and providing opportunities to practice divergent thinking. Teachers should remember to evaluate student learning in a way that does not rely solely on tests and assessment of convergent thinking.
acceleration consensual assessment technique convergent thinking creative-productive giftedness
enrichment giftedness schoolhouse giftedness three-ring conception of giftedness
creativity
cross-grade grouping curriculum compacting divergent thinking
boh7850x_CL7Mod23.p411-423.indd 421 boh7850x_CL7Mod23.p411-423.indd 421 10/9/08 9:10:48 AM
10/9/08 9:10:48 AM
422
case
studies: reflect and evaluate
Early Childhood: “Letter P Day”
These questions refer to the case study on page 388.
1. Evaluate whether Nolan, Jillian, and Pat could be considered gifted. Use the characteristics of giftedness and the federal definition of giftedness discussed in the module to support your answer.
2. Based on the information given in the case, would you consider Nolan to be gifted according to Renzulli’s three-ring conception of giftedness? Why or why not? Would you need additional information about him?
3. If Nolan were assessed and found to be gifted, discuss whether you would choose acceleration or enrichment activities for him. Give specific developmentally appropriate examples of how you would implement your chosen approach.
4. Using the characteristics discussed in the module, explain which student or students you would consider to be creative.
5. Explain how Anita encourages creativity in her classroom.
6.
What activities could Anita introduce to encourage divergent
thinking?
Elementary School: “Cheetahs, Lions, and Leopards”
These questions refer to the case study on page 390.
1. Using the characteristics of giftedness and the federal definition of giftedness discussed in the module, do you think Marcela or Carl could be considered gifted? Why or why not?
2. Based on the information given in the case, would you consider Marcela or Carl to be gifted according to Renzulli’s three-ring conception of giftedness? Why or why not? Would you need additional information?
3. Carl appears to come from a lower-socioeconomic family. How might this affect his chances of being identified as gifted, according to the research evidence presented in the module?
4. What strategies could Mrs. Fratelli use to meet the needs of a gifted student in reading and science?
How might these strategies be different or similar?
5. Does the science experiment in Mrs. Fratelli’s class involve convergent thinking or divergent thinking?
Explain.
6.
How could Mrs. Fratelli adjust her teaching strategies in reading or
science in order to give students greater opportunity to express
their creativity in class? Give specific examples.
Middle School: “Math Troubles”
These questions refer to the case study on page 392.
1. Do you think Sam may be gifted? Using the characteristics discussed in the module, identify details from the case to support your answer.
2. How should Elizabeth address Sam’s academic needs? Give specific examples, and support your answer with research presented in the module.
3. Explain how Elizabeth can use curriculum compacting to address the wide diversity of skill levels in her class.
4. Explain how Dexter’s word problem contest represents the four stages of creativity discussed in the module.
5. Based on the information given in the module, what criteria could be used to identify the most creative word problem?
6. In what additional ways can Elizabeth stimulate creativity in her students? Give specific examples.
boh7850x_CL7Mod23.p411-423.indd 422 boh7850x_CL7Mod23.p411-423.indd 422 10/9/08 9:10:50 AM
10/9/08 9:10:50 AM
case studies: reflect and evaluate 423
High School: “NSS”
These questions refer to the case study on page 394.
1. Could Jason be gifted? Evaluate this possibility using Renzulli’s three-ring conception of giftedness.
What additional information would you need to have to help you decide?
2. Evaluate whether Anthony could be gifted according to the federal definition of giftedness. Discuss what factors might cause educators to overlook students like Anthony for eligibility in gifted programs.
3. According to the research on identification of students for gifted programs, would it surprise you that
Sarah chose to be in lower-level math and science classes? Why or why not?
4. Beau suspects that Sarah might be more willing to complete her homework if she found it more challenging and meaningful. If he wants to develop some enrichment activities for Sarah in order to deepen her knowledge of history, what must he take into consideration to ensure that the activities provide the optimal benefit for Sarah?
5. Do you consider Beau’s reenactment of historical events to be creative? Justify your answer using information discussed in the module.
6.
Beau notices that his students usually enjoy his lectures; however,
they don’t seem very enthusiastic about the forms of assessment he
uses (tests, papers, and homework). Describe an assessment Beau could
use in his U.S. history class that would allow students to express
their creativity.
boh7850x_CL7Mod23.p411-423.indd 423 boh7850x_CL7Mod23.p411-423.indd 423 10/9/08 9:10:53 AM
10/9/08 9:10:53 AM