22

M O D U L E

What Is Intelligence?

ⁿ Classic Views

ⁿ Contemporary Views

Intelligence Measured As IQ

ⁿ Individually Administered and Group-administered Tests ⁿ Interpreting IQ Scores

ⁿ Caveats for Interpreting IQ

Intelligence

Outline Learning Goals

1. Describe Spearman’s two-factor theory of intelligence and contrast it with contemporary theories of intelligence.

2. Describe what IQ tests measure and contrast individually administered and group-administered tests.

Summary Key Concepts Case Studies: Reflect and Evaluate

Applications: Intelligence Theories in the Classroom ⁿ Multiple Intelligences in the Classroom

ⁿ Teaching for Successful Intelligence

Biological, Social, and Cultural Issues

ⁿ Intelligence: Heredity or Environment?

ⁿ Socioeconomic and Cultural Factors

3. Describe how environment, socioeconomic status, and gender influence IQ.

4. Explain the similarities between the theory of multiple intelligences and the theory of successful intelligence in their applications to the classroom.

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Intelligence

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WHAT IS INTELLIGENCE?

What do you think of when you hear the term intelligence? Almost all psychologists agree that intelligence involves adaptation to the environment (Sternberg, 1996a, 2005). Psychologists throughout the past century have emphasized the importance of cognitive skills in adaptation: abstract reasoning, representation, problem solving, decision making, and speed of processing (Hogan, 2007; Sternberg, Conway, Ketron, & Bernstein, 1981). However, the views of these experts contrast markedly with the layperson’s views of intelligence in various cultures. Let’s examine the meaning of intelligence in different cultural contexts:

n In African cultures, such as Kenya and Zimbabwe, an intelligent person possesses skills for facilitating and maintaining intergroup and intragroup relations (Greenfield, 1997; Sternberg & Kaufman, 1998).

n Individuals in Asian cultures, such as Cambodia, Vietnam, and the Philippines, believe that motivation, social skills, and practical skills are just as important as cognitive skills in defining intelligence (Okagaki & Sternberg, 1993; Sternberg, 2004).

n Cultural groups within the United States have different views of intelligence (Sternberg, 2007). In one study, Latino immigrants emphasized social-competence skills as important for intelligence, in contrast to the emphasis of Asian and Anglo parents on the importance of cognitive skills (Okagaki & Sternberg, 1993).

Classic Views

Modern theorists have debated about the definition of intelligence for more than a hundred years— and the debate continues. The debate over whether intelligence is a single trait or many abilities originated with a theory of intelligence advanced by Charles Spearman. Spearman (1904, 1927), after examining the relationship among many cognitive tests, proposed the two-factor theory of intelligence shown in Figure 22.1. The two factors are:

n g, which is our overall ability to perform on a variety of cognitive tasks, and

n s, which refers to specific skills such as vocabulary and mathematical skills.

Other twentieth-century theorists proposed that intelligence consists of multiple factors. One theorist identified seven factors in intelligence, called primary mental abilities (Thurstone, 1938, 1947). Another proposed 120 distinct abilities but later revised that number to 180 (Guilford, 1956, 1988). Several other theorists have proposed hierarchical theories of intelligence—a compromise between one intelligence, g, and many intelligences. In one of the most influential hierarchical theories, g is the overall ability and encompasses two secondary abilities (Cattell, 1963; Horn 1994):

n general crystallized intelligence (Gc), our overall knowledge base resulting from formal and informal education (think of it as an individual’s pool of knowledge or facts), and

n general fluid intelligence (Gf), or abilities that allow us to reason, think, and learn new things (think of it as an individual’s potential for learning).

The hierarchical view of intelligence has remained influential for both theoretical and practical reasons. Crystallized and fluid intelligence appear in modern hierarchical theories of intelligence and serve as the basis for some contemporary IQ tests.

How do you define intelligence? As you read the next section, compare your views to contemporary theories of intelligence.

Contemporary Views

While some contemporary theories still focus on g (e.g., Carroll, 1993; Gustafsson, 1994; Horn, 1994), psychologists Howard Gardner and Robert Sternberg argue that g becomes less important if we define intelligence using a broad range of abilities rather than a limited set of academic-related tasks (Sternberg, 2003). They have proposed multidimensional theories of intelligence that are distinct yet complementary.

,

Figure 22.1: Spearman’s Two-factor Theory of Intelligence. Intelligence is comprised of general ability as well as specific skills.

g (General mental ability)

S₁ (vocabulary)

S₂ (quantitative skills)

S₃ (abstract reasoning)

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GARDNER’S THEORY OF MULTIPLE INTELLIGENCES

In his theory of multiple intelligences (MI theory), Gardner (1983, 1999) proposes that we have eight intelligences:

1. Linguistic (using words to describe or communicate ideas).
2. Logical-mathematical (reasoning, perceiving patterns in numbers, using numbers effectively).

3. Spatial (accurately perceiving and transforming the visual-spatial world).

4. Bodily-kinesthetic (having expertise in using one’s body).

5. Musical (recognizing components of music, expressing musical forms, using music to express ideas).

6. Interpersonal (accurately perceiving and appropriately responding to the emotions of other people).

7. Intrapersonal (introspection, discriminating one’s emotions and perceptions, knowing one’s strengths and limitations).

8. Naturalistic (recognizing and classifying living things, sensitivity to features of the natural world).

The intelligences are independent of one another, but they interact—or work together—in activities (Gardner & Moran, 2006). For example, playing basketball involves bodily-kinesthetic and spatial intelligences, while ballet dancing incorporates bodily-kinesthetic, spatial, and musical intelligences. Linguistic and logical-mathematical intelligences typically are assessed on IQ tests, but the other six intelligences are not.

Look at the examples of each intelligence and corresponding instructional activities in Table 22.1. Think about your own abilities. How would you describe yourself in terms of multiple intelligences? Your answer—whether it be musical, bodily-kinesthetic, or some combination of intelligences— likely comes from a variety of sources:

n activities in which you excel,

n past experiences and successes, and

n interests or preferences.

Just as you determined your intelligences based on these external sources, Gardner (1993) believes that multiple intelligences exist in the context of a person’s interaction with objects and people in the environment, not as abstract entities in the person’s mind. For example, we observe intelligence every day in authentic tasks—that is, tasks that reflect real-life problems, roles, or situations, such as when an elementary school student solving word problems and a high school student designing and conducting a physics experiment show logical-mathematical intelligence.

STERNBERG’S THEORY OF SUCCESSFUL INTELLIGENCE

Like Gardner, Sternberg (1999) does not limit intelligence to capabilities that allow individuals to succeed in school. Rather, he considers intelligence to be a person’s ability to succeed in life. According to his theory of successful intelligence, an individual defines success according to personal goals, which may be focused on career, extracurricular activities, personal interests, or community service. Our sociocultural context also contributes to defining success, because the types of knowledge needed for success—and what is valued as success—differ across cultural contexts. In Usenge, Kenya, for example, children develop expertise in identifying natural herbal medicines in order to survive in an environment where they are exposed to many parasitic illnesses, just as children in Western cultures engage in formal education because it allows them to be successful within their own cultural context (Sternberg, 1999, 2004).

Sternberg proposes that we all possess analytical, creative, and practical abilities to differing degrees and that individuals who are successfully intelligent find ways to balance the strengths and weaknesses in their abilities (Sternberg & Grigorenko, 2003).

n Analytical abilities involve identifying and defining a problem, choosing a strategy for solving the problem, and monitoring the outcome. Analytical skills, typically measured on IQ tests, involve analyzing, evaluating, judging, or comparing and contrasting.

n Creative abilities involve generating novel ideas for solving problems. Individuals with creative abilities are risk takers because they often generate ideas that initially are unpopular and must

>><<

Creativity:

See page 417.

Authentic tasks:

See page 470.

,

>><<

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TA B L E 2 2 .1 Gardner’s Multiple Intelligences Intelligence Examples Instructional activities

1. Linguistic intelligence

mathematician, scientist, computer programmer, statistician, logician, detective

hunter, scout, guide, interior decorator, architect, artist, sculptor

Illustrate, draw, or sketch . . . Create a slide show or piece of art about . . .

Chart, map, or graph . . .

Build or construct a . . .

Use hands-on materials to demonstrate . . .

Plan and attend a field trip that will demonstrate . . .

Intelligence

Module 22 :

poet, writer, storyteller, comedian, public speaker, public relations, politician, journalist, editor, professor

Write a poem, short story, play about . . .

Create an interview of . . . Conduct a debate on . . .

2. Logical-mathematical intelligence

Design and conduct an experiment on . . .

Describe the patterns in . . .

Make up analogies to explain . . .

3. Spatial intelligence

4. Bodily-kinesthetic intelligence

actor, athlete, mime, dancer

5. Musical intelligence

composer, director, performer, musical technician

Sing a song to explain . . .

Indicate rhythmical patterns in . . . Use a musical instrument to demonstrate . . .

religious leader, counselor, psychotherapist, writer, philosopher

pastor, counselor, administrator, teacher, manager, coach, coworker, parent

6. Interpersonal intelligence

Use social skills to learn about . . . Participate in a service project . . . Teach someone about . . .

7. Intrapersonal intelligence

Write a journal entry on . . . Assess your own work in . . . Describe your values and opinions about . . .

Create observation notebooks of . . . Describe changes in the environment due to . . .

Use observational tools (microscope, binoculars) to explore . . .

8. Naturalistic intelligence

naturalist, hunter, scout, farmer, environmentalist

Sources: Campbell, 1997; Johnson, 2000.

convince others of the value of their ideas. Assessing creative intelligence involves evaluating how well people deal with novelty.

n Practical abilities involve applying knowledge to real-life contexts, implementing options and solutions, and making them work. Students who are practical learners are better able to learn information if they can see its relevance to their own lives (Sternberg, 1997).

Successful individuals are able to balance their abilities by effectively adapting to, shaping, and selecting their environment (Sternberg, 2002). An elementary student may decide to read more at home to better his oral reading skills in class (adapting to the environment). A middle school student who is excelling academically may ask the teacher for more challenging work (shaping the environment). An adolescent may decide to attend a high school arts academy because it matches her interests and

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abilities in music and art (selecting the environment). External factors, such as socioeconomic status, education, and cultural background, affect individual students’ opportunities to adapt, shape, and select their environments. For example, students from lower socioeconomic communities may not have access to the same resources (books, newspapers, and magazine subscriptions in the home; rigorous curricula; money for private schools) as students from higher socioeconomic families, limiting their options. Educators need to remember to evaluate students’ success within the context of the opportunities afforded them (Sternberg, 1999).

Teachers can help students identify their strengths and weaknesses in analytical, creative, and practical abilities, but it is especially important for them to recognize students with creative and practical abilities. Traditional methods of instruction and assessment in schools have enabled students with strengths in analytical or memory abilities to be successful, conveying the skewed message that only these abilities are valued in society (Sternberg, 1999). In reality, many people who have been successful in creative or practical domains were in fact mediocre students (Sternberg, 1997). Designer Tommy Hilfiger, actor/producer Henry Winkler, and Charles Schwab, CEO of the largest brokerage firm in the United States, all have achieved great success in life based on their creative or practical abilities, despite struggling in school academically. A narrow focus on analytical skills also tends to overlook students from culturally diverse backgrounds. By including creative and practical abilities in our conception of intelligence, educators can identify more culturally and socioeconomically diverse students as “smart” (Sternberg, 1996b; Sternberg & Clinkenbeard, 1995).

INTELLIGENCE MEASURED AS IQ

IQ tests are a set of cognitive tasks used to measure intellectual functioning in children and adults. When used with children, their primary purpose is to predict school achievement.

Individually Administered and Group-administered Tests

The Stanford-Binet Intelligence Scales-V (Roid, 2003) and Wechsler Intelligence Scale for Children, Fourth Edition (WISC-IV) (Wechsler, 2003) are the most common individually administered
IQ tests used in school settings. Individually administered IQ tests measure individuals’ cognitive abilities with a battery of subtests that require no reading and are administered one-on-one by a trained examiner. As an example, the WISC-IV includes ten subtests to measure four general cognitive abilities: verbal comprehension, working memory, perceptual (i.e., nonverbal) reasoning, and processing speed. Table 22.2 provides a description of one subtest from each of these areas. School psychologists use individually administered tests to predict school achievement for very specific purposes, such as:

n determining eligibility of students for gifted programs and

n identifying intellectual disabilities and learning disabilities.

,

Successful Intelligence. Many famous individuals (such as
Henry Winkler, shown here) have achieved success based on their creative or practical intelligence.

,

Individually Administered IQ Tests. These IQ tests are given one-on-one by a trained examiner.

>><<

Intellectual and learning disabilities: See page 427.

Giftedness:

See page 413.

>><<

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module twenty-two intelligence 401

TA B L E 2 2 . 2 Description of Selected WISC-IV Subtests Cognitive area Description of a WISC-IV task

Intelligence

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Verbal Comprehension Vocabulary: Student gives definitions of words presented by the examiner as a question (“What is a . . . ?”).

Perceptual Reasoning Block Design: Student views a picture of a design and must re-create it within a specified time period using red-and-white blocks.

Working Memory Digit Span: Examiner says a series of digits (ranging from 2 to a maximum of 9), and the student repeats the digits in the exact order.

Processing Speed Symbol Search: Within a specified time period, student indicates whether a specified target symbol appears in an array of symbols. For example:
Target: ♠ Array: ╩ £ ◘

Simulated items similar to those in the Wechsler Intelligence Scale for Children–Fourth Edition. Copyright © 2003 by NCS Pearson, Inc. Reproduced with permission. All rights reserved.

Group-administered IQ tests contain objective items, such as multiple choice, and are administered in a group setting using a paper-and-pencil format. At one time, schools used group IQ tests as screening tools to help teachers make decisions about instruction and place students into groups based on their ability (Cohen & Swerdlik, 2005; Sternberg, 2003). Today, schools use group IQ tests less frequently than they did about 20 years ago (Cohen & Swerdlik, 2005). Experts recognize that placement decisions should not be based on a single test score.

When IQ is being used to predict students’ academic achievement, individually administered tests are preferred. Because group-administered tests are given to large groups of students at once, they have several features that may affect students’ scores and lead to a narrow interpretation of students’ intellectual functioning. These tests rely on a test taker’s understanding of the directions, on reading skills, and on test-taking strategies. Group test taking may cause distractions and also may increase a student’s anxiety. Individually administered IQ tests provide a more accurate picture of a student’s cognitive ability because they require no reading and are given one-on-one with a psychologist, who can establish rapport and determine a student’s level of anxiety, motivation, and distractibility.

Interpreting IQ Scores

IQ scores reveal a test taker’s relative standing on an IQ test as compared with the scores of other, similar individuals on the same test. This is called a norm-referenced interpretation—judging how the student performs compared to others in the norm group (all other test takers with similar characteristics). Psychologists make a norm-referenced interpretation by converting a test taker’s raw score, the number of items correctly answered, to a deviation IQ, a score that indicates how far above or below the average a student scored on the IQ test compared to same-age individuals. To interpret a student’s deviation IQ, we must compare it to the normal (or bell-shaped) curve shown in Figure 22.2. For any group of same-age individuals, most IQ tests set the average score at 100, with a standard deviation of
15. Standard deviation (SD) measures how much a score strays from the average.

By using the SD, we can partition the bell curve to allow norm-referenced interpretations. As Figure 22.2 shows:

>><<

Standard deviation:

See page 530.

Norm-referenced testing: See page 527.

>><<

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n Approximately 68% of test takers have IQ scores within 1 SD of the average, that is, between 85 and 115. Performance in this range is considered within average.

n Approximately 13.5% of individuals have scores between 115 and 130 (i.e., between 1 and 2 SDs above the average). Similarly, about 13.5% of individuals have scores between 70 and 85 (i.e., between 1 and 2 SDs below the average).

n Almost 2.5% of the population has scores more than

2 SDs away from the mean in either direction. Individuals with IQ scores below 70 may be diagnosed with intellectual disability (formerly called mental retardation) if they also meet several other criteria.

Students with IQ scores above 132 (top 2% of the population) or above 135 (top 1% of the population) may be eligible for gifted programs (Sternberg, 2002), depending on guidelines that vary from state to state.

Caveats for Interpreting IQ

Because IQ tests are used in high-stakes situations in which important educational decisions are made based in part on test scores, educators must be cautious in interpreting students’ IQ scores, for several reasons.

IQ tests represent a finite sample of a person’s cognitive skills. They capture certain, but not all, abilities that are part of intelligence. Theories of intelligence do not agree on what intelligence is (Sternberg, 2005). Also, different IQ tests do not measure the same skills. Because IQ tests are developed based on different theories of intelligence, each test uses a slightly different set of subtests rather than a standard set of tasks.

IQ is a snapshot of a person’s ability at a given point in time. Children’s IQ scores indicate only their performance at the time of the test administration (Jarvin & Sternberg, 2003). Educators should use caution when they make predictions about future academic performance based on IQ scores.

n Scores on early childhood IQ tests are not very stable in infancy and early childhood (Sternberg,

2002).

n A person’s performance on IQ tests can change over time as a result of formal or informal education (Garlick, 2003; Jarvin & Sternberg, 2003). Even fluid abilities that once were thought to be culture-fair, such as abstract or nonverbal reasoning, are affected by cultural and environmental input (Sternberg, 2005). Remember that even though individuals can improve their performance as a result of instruction and environmental input, their performance relative to the norm group generally does not change drastically over time. Therefore, IQ scores generally are stable from elementary school through adulthood (Garlick, 2003; Moffitt, Caspi, Harkness, & Silva, 1993).

n Culturally and linguistically diverse students must be tested in their native language on an IQ test that has been developed for use with individuals in their culture. Use of translated tests may compromise the validity, or accuracy, of the test score (Kaplan & Saccuzzo, 2005). For example, if a student from a Hispanic background obtains a low score on an IQ test translated into Spanish, we can’t be sure whether the low score was due to his ability or to the comparability of the translated test to the original English-language IQ test. Similarly, experts caution against the use of interpreters because an interpreter can inadvertently introduce bias into the testing situation, which also will reduce the test score’s validity (American Educational Research Association, American Psychological Association, & National Council on Measurement in Education, 1999).

Your friend has received a very high score on a group-administered IQ test and believes he is intelligent. Explain to your friend the flaws in his reasoning.

Percent of cases under portions of the normal curve

2.14% 2.14%
13.59% 13.59%
34.13% 34.13%

85 100 115 130 145

–3SD –2SD –1SD

Average score in distribution

0.13% 0.13%

55 70

+1SD +2SD +3SD

Figure 22.2: Normal Distribution of IQ Scores. The IQ distribution has an average score of 100 and a standard deviation of 15.

>><<

High-stakes testing: See page 549.

>><<

Validity in testing: See page 534.

>><<

Test bias: See page 547.

BIOLOGICAL, SOCIAL, AND CULTURAL ISSUES

Intelligence: Heredity or Environment?

Heredity and environment interact to produce all types of behaviors, including intelligence (Carroll, 1992; Sternberg, 1996a). We must be careful not to conclude that genetics predetermines that an in-

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Intelligence

Module 22 :

dividual will have a certain level of intelligence. The environment has been shown to have a dramatic effect on the development of intelligence.

Children’s IQ scores may be affected by several factors related to their home environment prior to entering school (Bradley & Caldwell, 1984; Korenman, Miller, & Sjaastad, 1995):

n emotional and verbal responsiveness of parents (responding to children’s requests, answering questions),

n parents’ involvement with their children (playing with them, reading to them), and

n availability of appropriate play materials, activities, and resources in the home.

Consider the following research on the influence of parent-child interactions. Home observations of 1- and 2-year-old children learning to talk indicated that parents from lower-socioeconomic families spoke about 616 words per hour to their children, middle-socioeconomic parents about 1,251 words per hour, and higher-socioeconomic parents about 2,153 words per hour. Early language experience influenced rate of vocabulary growth, which in turn predicted vocabulary, language skills, and reading comprehension at age 9 (Hart & Risley, 2003).

Most experts also believe that intelligence can be shaped and even improved through various interventions (Grotzer & Perkins, 2000; Mayer, 2000). The Abecedarian project, in which children from impoverished families were provided with an enriching educational environment from age six weeks to kindergarten, showed IQ and achievement advantages through age 12 (Ramey, 1994). Head Start, a program that provides at-risk preschoolers with experiences to promote intellectual development, has helped children become cognitively ready for school and has improved their school achievement through middle adolescence (Barnett, 2004; Lazar & Darlington, 1982; Zigler & Berman, 1983).

The Flynn effect (Flynn, 1984, 1994), a phenomenon in which IQ scores have increased over successive generations throughout the world (about 3 IQ points per decade since the 1930s), is another example of the effect of environment on cognitive abilities. Possible explanations for the increase in IQ include (Bronfenbrenner & Ceci, 1994; Lynn, 1990; Sternberg & Kaufman, 1998):

n better nutrition,

n increased schooling,

n greater educational level of parents,

n fewer childhood diseases, and

n improved parent-child interactions.

Socioeconomic and Cultural Factors

SOCIOECONOMIC STATUS (SES)

The connection between IQ and socioeconomic status (SES) is well documented (White, 1982). When SES is defined by parents’ income, occupation, and educational level, children from higher-SES families tend to have higher IQs than children from lower-SES families. The lower performance of children from poor families may be due to (Duncan & Brooks-Gunn, 2000; McLoyd, 1998; Sternberg, 2002):

n fewer resources (books, computers, access to high-quality preschool),

n poorer nutrition,

n poorer health care, and

n strained parent-child relationships due to high levels of parental stress.

However, this correlation does not show the entire picture. When we define a child’s home environment based on factors such as parental attitudes about education and parent-child interaction patterns, home environment is a stronger predictor of performance on IQ tests than is a student’s socioeconomic status (Bradley & Caldwell, 1984; Suzuki & Valencia, 1997). Children from families in which parents value education, talk with their children, read to their children, and make time for learning—regardless of the financial and occupational status of the family—tend to have higher IQ scores.

What does this research mean for teachers? Teachers form expectations for students based on many sources of information, of which SES is one. Teachers might assume from a student’s appearance that he or she is from a lower-SES background and unconsciously form lower expectations for the student, leading to a self-fulfilling prophecy—a groundless expectation that leads the teacher to act in ways that make the expectation come true (Merton, 1948). Teachers should regularly monitor

,

,

,

>><<

SES as a context of children’s development: See page 41.

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their own expectations of student performance to avoid making assumptions or behaving in ways that negatively affect students.

^,RACE

Like the connection between SES and IQ, the correlation between race and average IQ scores is well documented. Compared to Caucasian students:

n African-American students score approximately 15 points below average (about 1 SD below the norm) (Nisbett, 1995; Reynolds, Chastain, Kaufman, & McLean, 1987), but the gap between African-American and Caucasian students appears to be narrowing (Hogan, 2007; Nisbett, 1995);

n Hispanic students score approximately average on nonverbal portions of IQ tests but about 7 to 15 points lower (¹–₂ to 1 SD below average) on verbal subtests (Hogan, 2007); and

n students from Chinese and Japanese cultures score about average on verbal subtests and about 1 SD above the average on nonverbal portions (Hogan, 2007).

Remember that these scores represent group averages, which can fluctuate over time (Sternberg, 2002).

What accounts for these differences among ethnic or racial groups? The differences may be due to a stereotype threat—an unconscious, automatic activation of prior knowledge about a stereotype that hinders performance on cognitive tasks. For example, African Americans have performed significantly worse on a test when they were told that it was an intelligence test compared to when they were given different instructions about the test (Aronson et al., 1999; Steele & Aronson, 1998). The stereo type they invoked about their ethnic group and intelligence while taking the test may have hindered their performance.

Also, the labels Asian, Hispanic, and Native-American are so heterogeneous that they are not meaningful indicators of race or ethnicity (Hogan, 2007). Hispanic and Latino refer to individuals from cultures including, but not limited to, Puerto Rico, Mexico, and Cuba (Neisser et al., 1996). Asian includes subgroups from many cultures, such as China, Japan, Vietnam, Cambodia, Korea, Laos, India, Pakistan, and the Philippines (Hogan, 2007; Neisser et al., 1996). And Native-American includes many different tribes with about 200 different languages (Leap, 1981).

Finally, the differences among ethnic or racial groups are more the result of socioeconomic and environmental influences than of race itself. When we compare the IQ scores of racial or ethnic groups within the same SES level—for example African-American, Hispanic, and Caucasian students all from higher-SES families—group differences are minimized (Suzuki & Valencia, 1997). Children of the same SES but different racial groups are more similar in IQ than are children from the same racial group but different socioeconomic statuses.

^,GENDER

In general, males and females differ minimally in their performance on tests of cognitive functioning (Hogan, 2007). There are, however, a few exceptions:

n Males show more variability in performance on cognitive tests, especially at the extremes of the distribution, leading to more males than females at the highest and lowest levels of measured intelligence (Halpern, 1997; Hogan, 2007).

n Males have an advantage on some tests of spatial ability such as mental rotations and tracking a moving object through space (Hogan, 2007; Law, Pellegrino, & Hunt, 1993; Linn & Peterson, 1985). The gender difference on mental rotation tasks (see Figure 22.3) is very large and has remained stable for two decades (Halpern, 1997; Masters & Sanders, 1993).

1. A.

Figure 22.3: Mental

Rotations. Individuals are given a target shape and need to identify the mirror image of the target shape from a set of comparison shapes, as shown.

Target Comparison shapes

B. C.

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module twenty-two intelligence 405

Gender differences are very small at the elementary school level and increase through adolescence. Elementary school boys and girls have similar levels of computational skill, conceptual knowledge in mathematics, and mathematical problem-solving skill (Fan, Chen, & Matsumoto, 1997; Halpern, 1997; Leahey & Guo, 2001). In fact, girls appear to have slightly better verbal skills and a slight advantage on quantitative tasks in the early elementary years (Hogan, 2007; Leahey & Guo, 2001). Around eighth grade, boys show a modest advantage in mathematical skills. Even though the gap between boys and girls widens slightly through twelfth grade, the difference remains very small (Leahey & Guo, 2001). High school boys also show a modest advantage in mathematical problem solving (Hyde, Fennema, & Lamon, 1990). The male advantage is relatively small for Asian-American and Caucasian students and markedly greater for Hispanic students, while African-American students show a female advantage instead of a male one (Fan et al., 1997).

The emergence of gender differences in mathematics and spatial skills during adolescence may be partly biological. Testosterone, a male sex hormone, has been shown to increase levels of spatial skills (Halpern, 1997). Also, gender differences in prenatal brain development may result in males having brains that are more specialized for right-hemisphere functions—such as visual-spatial, music, and nonverbal tasks—and females having brains that are more bilaterally organized (Halpern, 1997). While both the right and left hemispheres are involved in all cognitive functions, this difference would mean that females tend to use both hemispheres more equally in many cognitive tasks while males tend to use the right hemisphere relatively more.

Gender stereotypes also may affect female performance on quantitative and spatial tasks. The stereotype threat that “girls are bad at math” may hinder females’ performance in mathematics (Halpern, 1997). For example, females who were told that a math test produced gender differences favoring males performed worse than when they were told the test was insensitive to gender differences (Steele, 1997). In early adolescence, gender stereotyping intensifies for girls, leading them to feel less secure about engaging in “male” activities (Huston & Alvarez, 1990). This may discourage adolescent girls from participating in math classes and from selecting advanced math courses in high school (Eccles & Jacobs, 1986; Jacobs, 1991; Sadker, Sadker, & Klein, 1991).

Teacher and parent behaviors also may contribute to a female disadvantage in quantitative and spatial skills. Teachers tend to assign high-ability boys to top math groups more frequently than they assign high-ability girls (Hallinan & Sorensøn, 1987). Teachers, parents, and counselors may play a role in girls’ decisions about whether to take upper-level math courses in high school (Oakes, 1990). High school math teachers also tend to interact less with girls and to provide them with less feedback (Oakes, 1990; Sadker et al., 1991).

Why might research on socioeconomic, ethnic, and gender differences in intelligence be important for teachers? How does knowledge of this research impact your teaching philosophy?

APPLICATIONS: INTELLIGENCE THEORIES IN THE CLASSROOM

Multiple Intelligences in the Classroom

Teachers can reach all types of learners using MI theory if they follow general guidelines and avoid common misapplications, shown in Table 22.3. MI theory can be implemented either on a school-wide basis or in individual classrooms.

School-wide approach. Educators can use MI theory to identify the skills and abilities that are valued in society and cultivate those abilities (Gardner, 1995). At the Key School in Indianapolis, a group of teachers worked with Gardner and his colleagues to develop a curriculum based on MI theory. The Key School emphasizes the use of all kinds of abilities by students. The curriculum is integrated through the use of school-wide themes that span all grades and all subjects and are studied in depth for nine weeks.

Schools at all levels can create a curriculum that reflects MI theory. In early childhood and elementary classrooms, the curricula should provide students with a variety of experiences to help them discover their interests and talents (Johnson, 2000). Some elementary schools have adopted a

Intelligence

Module 22 :

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Teacher-student Interactions. The greater attention boys receive during classro0m interactions, especially in “male” domains such as math, may influence girls’ perceptions of their abilities.

Brain development:

See page 118.

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406 cluster seven learner differences

Multiple Intelligences Theory: Guidelines and Misapplications General guidelines Common misapplications

TA B L E 2 2 . 3

Differences among students are taken seriously so that curricula and assessments are constructed to be sensitive to those differences.

Attempting to teach every lesson in eight ways

ⁿ Using interpersonal intelligence as a rationale for cooperative learning

ⁿ Using intrapersonal intelligence as a rationale for self-esteem programs

Knowledge about differences is shared with students and parents.

Lessons are presented in a way that allows all students the opportunity to master the material and demonstrate what they have learned.

Using MI theory as a mnemonic aid (e.g., using dance or mime to help students remember material from a lesson)

Promoting musical intelligence by playing background music during learning activities

Students gradually take on responsibility for their own learning.

Source: Gardner, 1995.

themed curriculum, like that of the Key School, integrating language arts, science, mathematics, and social studies. This allows children to experience topics in greater depth and to recognize how they can apply knowledge and skills to multiple subjects. Middle schools and high schools can adapt their existing curricula to reflect an emphasis on MI by adding a stronger arts program, implementing learning stations in classes, using community experts to mentor students in their areas of expertise, or constructing school-wide interdisciplinary units (Campbell, 1997).

Individual classrooms. Teachers should recognize and identify students’ different strengths and weaknesses in their intelligence by directly observing students in authentic tasks—real-life activities that are themselves valued (Gardner, 1991, 1999). For example, a teacher might identify spatial intelligence by observing students as they design a new gymnasium, or identify linguistic intelligence by evaluating the process and product of students’ writing given a writing prompt.

To meet the needs of learners with diverse strengths and weaknesses, teachers should introduce subject matter in more than one way (Gardner, 1991, 1999). For example, as teachers we can learn about intelligence through:

n a narrative (the history of the development of intelligence theories and tests),

n hands-on experiences (looking at IQ tests, learning how to administer them),

n logical-quantitative techniques (practicing the interpretation of IQ scores), or

n an existential inquiry (discussing whether intelligence is due to nature or nurture).

Teaching the same topic using different approaches will provide students with opportunities to learn a topic using their strengths and to develop skills in their weaker areas of intelligence (Kornhaber, Fierros, & Veenema, 2004).

As a result of teaching material through multiple methods, teachers will cover fewer topics, but the topics will be covered in greater depth and more students will be successful (Gardner, 1995). This is not a new concept. International comparisons of mathematics performance have indicated that mathematics instruction in top-performing countries focuses on fewer concepts in greater depth (Schmidt, McKnight, & Raizen, 1996). Schools that have used MI-inspired practices for several years have documented both qualitative and quantitative evidence of the benefits to students’ learning (Gardner & Moran, 2006). Of 41 schools implementing MI-inspired curricula, 49% have shown improvement in achievement test scores, 54% have reported fewer discipline problems, and 60% have documented increased parental involvement (Kornhaber et al., 2004).

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Authentic assessment: See page 500.

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module twenty-two intelligence 407

Teaching to Analytical, Creative, and Practical Abilities Subject area Analytical Creative Practical

TA B L E 2 2 . 4

Language Arts Compare the personality of Tom Sawyer to that of Huckleberry Finn.

Mathematics Solve a mathematical word problem (using the D = RT formula).

Discuss the applicability of lessons of the Civil War for countries today that have strong internal divisions.

Show how to use the D = RT formula to estimate driving time from one city to another near you.

Intelligence

Module 22 :

Write a very short story with Tom Sawyer as a character.

Describe the general lesson about persuasion that can be learned from Tom Sawyer’s way of persuading his friends to whitewash Aunt Polly’s fence.

Create your own mathematical word problem using the D = RT formula.

Social Studies Compare, contrast, and evaluate the arguments of those who supported slavery versus those who opposed it.

Write a page of a journal from the viewpoint of a soldier fighting for one or the other side during the Civil War.

Reprinted with permission from Sternberg, 1997.

Science Analyze how the immune system fights bacterial infections.

Suggest ways to cope with the increasing immunity bacteria are showing to antibiotic drugs.

Suggest three steps that individuals might take to reduce the likelihood of bacterial infection.

Teaching for Successful Intelligence

Consistent with an MI approach to teaching, the goal of teaching for successful intelligence is to ensure that all students can achieve higher levels of learning. Teachers must use instructional approaches that focus on (Sternberg, 1997, 2002):

n analytical learning (analyze, compare, evaluate, judge, assess),

n creative learning (create, invent, imagine, suppose, design), and

n practical learning (use, put into practice, implement, demonstrate).

Memory-based instruction (factual knowledge or recall) is still an important component of school learning, because students cannot think analytically, creatively, or in a practical manner if they have no knowledge base (Sternberg, 2002). Teachers can use instructional approaches for analytical, creative, or practical thinking in any subject and at any grade level, as illustrated in Table 22.4.

Teaching for successful intelligence should empower students to cultivate an ability to adapt to, select, and shape their environments. Guidelines to help students develop successful intelligence include:

1. Balance instruction so that over the course of a unit students are exposed to lessons that emphasize analytical, creative, and practical abilities. This enables them to learn how to capitalize on their strengths and correct or compensate for their weaknesses (Sternberg, 2002). Remember, though, that it is not necessary to teach each lesson in three different ways.

2. Be sensitive to individual differences in the way students represent information. Individuals differ in their preferred way of representing content (verbally, quantitatively, spatially) and have preferred

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408 cluster seven learner differences

modalities for storing information (visual vs. auditory) and producing information (written vs. oral) (Sternberg, 1998). Teachers should vary the methods they use to assess student learning rather than relying on a single mode of evaluation, such as written tests.

3. Provide students with opportunities to shape their environment by choosing activities, paper topics, projects, or portfolio items (Sternberg, 1998). This is consistent with the emphasis on student choice in MI theory.

4. Teach in a “zone of relative novelty” where material is challenging but not too much so (Sternberg,

1998). This approach not only encourages students to develop their creative abilities (responding to novelty) but also is consistent with Piaget’s (1972) and Vygotsky’s (1978) theories of cognitive development.

5. Encourage automaticity of information-processing skills such as reading and mathematics (Sternberg, 1998). Individuals with successful intelligence have information-processing skills that are automatic, allowing them to engage more efficiently in analytical, creative, and practical thinking.

When teachers apply successful intelligence in the classroom, students learn more. In studies of elementary through high school classrooms, students performed better when teachers provided instruction that matched students’ strengths at least some of the time, compared to students in classes that involved traditional memory-based instruction or instruction that did not match student abilities (Grigorenko, Jarvin, & Sternberg, 2002; Sternberg, Grigorenko, Ferrari, & Clinkenbeard, 1999). This finding holds for different subjects and types of assessment (factual knowledge or higher-order thinking).

Think of the grade level you intend to teach. Which theory would you apply to your classroom? What aspects of the theory influenced your decision?

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Automaticity:See page 197, page 230, and page 432.

Piaget’s and Vygotsky’s theories of cognitive development: See page 119 and page 124.

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case studies: reflect and evaluate 409

Summary

Describe Spearman’s two-factor theory of intelligence and contrast it with contemporary theories of intelligence. Spearman proposed the first hierarchical theory of intelligence, arguing that humans have a general cognitive ability, g, comprised of specific abilities, s. Gardner and Sternberg believe that if we define intelligence more broadly to include other capabilities, g will be less important. Gardner proposed eight intelligences, only two of which are measured by IQ tests, while Stern-berg’s theory involves a balance between three intellectual abilities—analytical, creative, and practical—of which only analytical skills are measured on IQ tests.

Describe what IQ tests measure and contrast individually administered and group-administered tests. IQ tests measure a specific set of skills, which vary from test to test, and they assess an individual’s cognitive ability at a specific point in time. Individually administered tests use cognitive tasks that require no reading, and they are administered one-on-one with an examiner. Group-administered tests contain objective items that require reading. Psychologists use individually administered IQ tests for diagnosing students with intel lectual disabilities and learning disabilities and to make eligibility decisions for gifted programs. Group-administered IQ tests can be used to help inform placement decisions.

Describe how environment, socioeconomic status, and gender influence IQ. Many factors in children’s home

environments prior to school entry are related to their IQ. Children tend to have higher IQ scores if their parents are responsive to their needs and provide opportunities that stimulate their cognitive development. Children from higher-SES families also have hig her IQs. Although racial groups differ in their average IQ scores, we must be cautious in interpreting these differences. The terms Hispanic and Asian, for example, are imprecise, and the IQ scores of ethnic groups fluctuate over time. SES also may account for a large proportion of the racial differences in IQ. Few gender differences in intelligence exist. Males perform better on spatial skills and in adolescence tend to have better mathematics skills than females.

Explain the similarities between the theory of multiple intelligences and the theory of successful intelligence in their applications to the classroom. The goal of both MI theory and the theory of successful intelligence is to reach more learners than traditional education does. Both theories emphasize that teachers should be sensitive to individual differences among students. They also advocate approaching a subject in a variety of ways to capitalize on students’ strengths and help them develop in their weak areas. Both theories also stress the importance of allowing students to choose assignments and tasks in a way that helps them demonstrate their strengths and work on their weaknesses.

Key Concepts

analytical abilities creative abilities deviation IQ Flynn effect group-administered IQ tests

individually administered IQ tests norm group norm-referenced practical abilities self-fulfilling prophecy

standard deviation (SD) stereotype threat theory of multiple intelligences theory of successful intelligence two-factor theory of intelligence

Case Studies: Refl ect and Evaluate

Early Childhood: “Letter P Day”

These questions refer to the case study on page 388.

1. How does Anita’s language arts activity reflect Sternberg’s theory of successful intelligence?

2. How does Anita’s language arts activity reflect Gardner’s theory of multiple intelligences?

3. Contrast the capabilities of Jillian and Pat using the theory of multiple intelligences and the theory of successful intelligence.

4. After another parent-teacher conference with Nolan’s mother, Anita decides to refer Nolan for a giftedness evaluation.

Why would an individually administered IQ test be a more appropriate means to assess Nolan’s cognitive ability than a group-administered IQ test?

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410 case studies: reflect and evaluate

5. Nolan’s IQ score is 143. Use the normal curve in Figure 22.2 to interpret what this score means. Based on Nolan’s IQ score, would you expect him to have a high IQ in later grades? Why or why not?

Elementary School: “Cheetahs, Lions, and Leopards”

These questions refer to the case study on page 390.

1. How would you describe Marcela and Carl according to Gardner’s theory of multiple intelligences?

How would you describe each student using Sternberg’s theory of successful intelligence?

2. The district in which Glendale Elementary School is located uses a group-administered IQ test to help teachers place students in the appropriate group level for reading and math instruction. Carl’s IQ score is 117. Use the normal curve in Figure 22.2 to interpret what this score means.

3. Assume that Carl is African American. Why might his IQ score underestimate his actual cognitive ability?

4. You are addressing the school board. Explain why a group-administered IQ test might not be appropriate for determining the placement of students into ability groups. Give specific examples to support your position.

5. According to the research on sociocultural issues in intelligence, how do you think Marcela’s family background has influenced her interest in science?

6. How can Mrs. Fratelli use the theory of multiple intelligences to teach science? How can she use the theory of successful intelligence to teach science?

Middle School: “Math Troubles”

These questions refer to the case study on page 392.

1. At the beginning of middle school, Lindsey and her classmates took a paper-and-pencil group-administered IQ test. Her IQ score was 113. Use the normal curve in Figure 22.2 to interpret what this score means. How certain are you that this IQ score accurately reflects her cognitive ability?

2. How would you characterize Sam according to Gardner’s theory of multiple intelligences?

3. According to Sternberg’s theory of successful intelligence, would you say that Lindsey has strengths in analytical, creative, or practical abilities, or in some combination of these?

4. How can Elizabeth incorporate Gardner’s theory of multiple intelligences into her pre-algebra class?

5. Which type of ability in Sternberg’s theory of successful intelligence does Elizabeth’s teaching method emphasize? How can Elizabeth adapt her teaching to include all the abilities in Sternberg’s theory?

6. Explain how factors such as gender stereotyping and stereotype threat may be affecting Lindsey’s motivation and performance in pre-algebra.

High School: “NSS”

These questions refer to the case study on page 394.

1. Sarah was administered the WISC-IV as part of the process of selecting students for the gifted-and-talented program in elementary school. The IQ score in her academic record is 132. Use the normal curve in Figure 22.2 to interpret what this score means.

2. In third grade, Anthony was suspected of having a learning disability and was referred to a school psychologist for testing. He was given the WISC-IV and obtained a score of 125. Use the normal curve in Figure 22.12 to interpret what this score means. (Note that IQ score alone does not determine whether a student has a learning disability.)

3. What expectation do you think Jason has for success in school? How might this create a self-fulfilling prophecy?

4. Imagine that you are one of Beau’s colleagues. Describe the theory of multiple intelligences and the theory of successful intelligence. Give Beau some suggestions based on these theories to help him change his all-lecture format.

5. Evaluate Beau’s use of exams and homework assignments. Which intelligence in MI theory would

Gardner say Beau is emphasizing? Which ability or abilities in the theory of successful intelligences would Sternberg say Beau is emphasizing?

6. Imagine that you are one of Beau’s colleagues. Based on MI theory and the theory of successful intelligence, give him some suggestions for additional methods of assessing students’ learning rather than relying solely on exams and homework assignments.

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