26

Assessment Planning

ⁿ Choosing Assessment Methods

ⁿ Using Assessment Data

What Is Assessment?

ⁿ Purposes of Assessment in Education

ⁿ Standards for Teacher Competence

M O D U L E

Assessing Student Learning

Outline Learning Goals

Summary Key Concepts Case Studies: Reflect and Evaluate

1. Describe the ways assessment is used in educational decision making.

2. Explain why developing an assessment plan is an important part of being an effective teacher.

Communication of Classroom Assessment Information ⁿ Grading Procedures

ⁿ Report Cards and Narrative Reports

ⁿ Parent-Teacher Communication

3. Discuss the important considerations in determining grading procedures in the classroom.
4. Discuss different methods for communicating assessment information to parents and students.

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WHAT IS ASSESSMENT?

Assessing Student Learning

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If you are like many people, when you hear the word assessment the first ideas that pop into your head are tests and grades. While these are part of the picture, classroom assessment actually is a much broader term that includes measurement and evaluation. You might hear the terms assessment, measurement, and evaluation used interchangeably. However, our use of these terms in educational contexts should be more precise. Let’s begin by clarifying what each of these terms means:

n Assessment is the process of obtaining information to be used for making decisions about curricula, students, programs, and educational policy (Nitko & Brookhart, 2007). This term also describes the actual tools (tests, papers, projects, etc.) used to gather information.

n Measurement refers to a quantitative or descriptive number assigned during the process of assessment to describe the extent to which someone possesses a certain attribute or skill (Haladyna, 2002).

n Evaluation is the process of making value judgments about the worth of a student’s product or performance. Evaluation in classroom assessment often takes the form of assigning letter grades (Haladyna, 2002).

Simply put, measurement and evaluation are parts of the process of assessment.

Purposes of Assessment in Education

Assessment occurs in different forms and for different purposes throughout the learning process. It can take place anywhere students are: in the classroom, in the gym, in a lab, or on a field trip. The ultimate purpose of assessment is to support students’ learning and development (Earl, 2003; Wiggins, 1998). Assessment involves a variety of data-gathering tools that allow teachers to:

1. provide feedback on students’ progress and level of achievement, 2. guide and motivate students in their own learning, 3. improve the general effectiveness of instruction, and 4. identify modifications that will better meet the needs of individual students.

The assessment process provides a sense of accountability. Reporting results holds students, teachers, and school districts responsible for learning.

Student assessment provides valuable information for educational decision making. Consider these uses of assessment data (Kulieke et al., 1990):

n diagnosis: monitoring students’ strengths, weaknesses, and progress in specific areas;

n placement: matching students to appropriate levels of instruction, as in determining whether to place an elementary school student in a beginning or advanced reading group or deciding whether to place a secondary school student in a basic or honors-level English course;

n guidance and counseling: helping students make appropriate educationa l and vocational decisions that match their skills and interests;

n admissions: choosing students to be admitted into various programs, for example, eligibility for a gifted and talented program, referral for special education evaluation and services, or admission to specific organizations such as the National Honor Society; and

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Accountability: See page 541.

Assessment for Admissions. Assessment data are used to make decisions, including admission into the National Honor Society.

Used with permission of the National Association of Secondary School Principals, parent organization of the National Honor Society.

®

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A Wider Range of

Student Outcomes.
Assessment today is not tied only to testing but includes a broad range of student outcomes, such as the dispositions indicators listed here.

Disposition Concerns

Disposition Indicators

Disposition concerns are very important for teacher candidates as disposition becomes increasingly important to the development of collaboration skills and other professional behaviors. Concerns need to be identified early and problems need to be resolved as soon as possible. All teacher candidates will be evaluated on the following disposition indicators*, but only those candidates who have engaged in behaviors that suggest a negative disposition should be reported.

Collaboration Issues: The ability to work together, especially in a joint intellectual effort.

Honesty/Integrity: The ability to demonstrate truthfulness to oneself and to others; demonstrate moral excellence and trustworthiness.

Respect: The ability to honor, value, and demonstrate consideration and regard for oneself and others.

Reverence for Learning: Respect and seriousness of intent to acquire knowledge.

Emotional Maturity: The ability to adjust one’s emotional state to suitable level of intensity in order to remain engaged with one’s surroundings.

Reflection: The ability to review, analyze, and evaluate the success of past decisions in an effort to make better decisions in the future.

Flexibility: The willingness to accept and adapt to change.

Responsibility: The ability to act independently, demonstrating accountability, reliability and sound judgment.

Explanation of Concern(s):

Student’s Name (please print)

UID # Major

This concern has been discussed with the teacher candidate. My signature verifies that I am aware of the document’s contents and existence.

Faculty/Staff Signature Student Signature

Faculty/Staff Name (please print) Date

Department

n certifi cation: determining mastery of specified criteria, such as satisfying the requirements to advance from one grade level to the next or to graduate from a program.

Think of examples from your own life. How have assessment data on your abilities been used to determine placement in educational programs or admission into organizations? How might your assessment data be used in the future for certification?

Standards for Teacher Competence

Up until the 1980s, very little information was available to teachers about how to design tests or develop other types of assessments for use in the classroom. Experts argued that, whenever possible, teachers should use tests developed by experts outside the classroom, and they made little distinction between the kind of assessment data gathered for large-scale policy decisions and that needed by teachers for everyday decision making in the classroom (Pellegrino, Chudowsky, & Glaser, 2001; Shepard, 2006). Today our concept of assessment has expanded beyond the exclusive use of tests.

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Educators have begun to extend their assessment practices to evaluate a wider range of student outcomes, including knowledge, reasoning skills, performance skills, and dispositions (Costa & Kallick, 2000; Western and Northern Canadian Protocol for Collaboration in Education, 2006).

In 1987, three professional education associations began working to develop standards to address a broader view of teacher competence with regard to student assessment. Representatives from the American Federation of Teachers, the National Council on Measurement in Education, and the National Education Association came together to develop standards that call on teachers to demonstrate skill at selecting, developing, applying, communicating, and evaluating student assessment information and student assessment practices. The standards developed by these associations outline seven skills teachers need in order to fulfill their assessment responsibilities (Sanders et al., 1990). Teachers must be able to:

1. Choose assessment methods appropriate for instructional decisions.

2. Develop assessment methods appropriate for instructional decisions.

3. Administer, score and interpret the results of both externally produced and teacher-produced assessment methods.
4. Use assessment results when making decisions about individual students, planning instruction, developing curriculum, and school improvement.

5. Develop valid grading procedures.

6. Communicate assessment results to students, parents, and other educators.

7. Recognize unethical, illegal, and otherwise inappropriate assessment methods and uses of assessment information.

The scope of a teacher’s professional responsibilities for student assessment at the classroom level can be described in terms of what happens before, during, and after instruction, as detailed in Table 26.1.

ASSESSMENT PLANNING

What teachers assess and how they assess it reveal what they value in students’ learning and help clarify learning objectives for their students, for themselves, and for school administrators. Teachers should not develop assessments post hoc, that is, after a lesson or unit has been taught; rather, they should choose or design them carefully in advance (Wiggins & McTighe, 1998). The first step in assessment planning is to identify the period the assessments will cover. Teachers may plan for a year, a grading period (often organized in nine-week segments), a unit, or a single lesson. A comprehensive assessment plan includes:

n learning objectives,

n a time frame,

n types of assessment (e.g., in-class assignments, homework, tests, quizzes, self-assessments), and

n types of evaluation (e.g., scoring rubric, weight given to each assessment).

Table 26.2 presents a sample assessment plan for a science unit at the elementary school level.

Choosing Assessment Methods

Teachers have many different assessment options available, as listed in Table 26.3. When thinking about how to assess student learning, teachers must make several decisions about the types of assessment that will best serve their purposes.

Should the assessment be formal or informal? Formal assessment is typically a preplanned, systematic attempt to discover what students have learned. Formal assessments, which may include tests, quizzes, homework assignments, and projects, are announced ahead of time to give students time to prepare or study. Informal assessment is the spontaneous, day-to-day observation of how students behave and perform in class. It may involve techniques such as listening, observing students’ interactions, and asking questions.

Is the purpose of the assessment formative or summative? Formative and summative refer to how certain assessments are used. Formative assessment helps both the teacher and the students to determine progress, check for understanding, and make adjustments to improve students’ learning while

Assessing Student Learning

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>><<

Choosing learning objectives for effective instruction: See page 360.

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TA B L E 2 6 .1 Assessment Responsibilities, Before, During, and After Instruction

Stage Teacher responsibilities

Prior to instruction n Understanding students’ cultural backgrounds, interests, skills, and abilities as they apply across a range of learning domains and/or subject areas ⁿ Understanding students’ motivations and their interests in specific class content ⁿ Planning instruction for individuals or groups of students

ⁿ Matching assessments to instructional objectives

ⁿ Developing a comprehensive assessment plan During instruction n Monitoring student progress toward instructional goals

ⁿ Identifying gains and difficulties students are experiencing in learning and performing ⁿ Adjusting instruction

ⁿ Giving contingent, specific, and credible praise and feedback

ⁿ Motivating students to learn

ⁿ Judging the extent of student attainment of instructional goals

After instruction (e.g., at the end of a lesson, class, grading period)

ⁿ Determining the extent to which each student has attained both short- and long-term instructional goals

ⁿ Communicating strengths and weaknesses based on assessment results to students and to parents or guardians

ⁿ Recording and reporting assessment results for school-level analysis, evaluation, and decision making

ⁿ Analyzing assessment information gathered before and during instruction to understand each student’s progress to date and to inform future instructional planning

ⁿ Evaluating the effectiveness of instruction

ⁿ Evaluating the effectiveness of the curriculum and the materials in use

Source: Adapted from http://www.unl.edu/buros/bimm/html/article3.html.

Test item formats: See page 487.

it is still in progress. Both formal and informal methods can be used to gather formative data, but informal assessments tend to be used more often for this purpose. Summative assessment helps the teacher evaluate students’ progress as well as the effectiveness of instructional methods at the end of a unit or grading period. Summative information often includes written documentation such as tests, quizzes, papers, scores on rating scales, or a student portfolio to determine a student’s progress toward achieving specific goals in a class. Summative information may be used to assign grades for report cards, to inform remedial or advanced placement decisions, or to provide accountability and feedback about the teacher’s own effectiveness. Formative assessment guides student learning and informs instructional efforts, while summative assessment documents achievement (Shepard, 2006). Ideally, formative and summative assessment work in concert to track progress toward important learning goals and provide information about student understanding and mastery of instructional material.

Is it better to use a paper-and-pencil test or a performance-based assessment task? Teachers often rely on traditional test formats, in which students write their responses on paper. In some cases it may be more appropriate to use performance assessment, in which students demonstrate skills they have learned.

Is it important that the assessment be authentic? Authentic assessments measure important abilities using methods that simulate the application of those abilities to real-world intellectual problems, roles, or situations. Rather than relying exclusively on a paper-and-pencil test format, authentic assess-

>><<

Performanceassessment design: See page 498.

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TA B L E 2 6 . 2 Sample Assessment Plan for a Science Unit at the Elementary Level

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UNIT 1:

The Water Cycle
General learning goals Understanding what the water cycle is, how it works, and how it helps living things. Ability to explain the water cycle and apply this understanding in a real-life context.

Time frame Unit will take two weeks to complete.

Formative assessment a. Three homework assignments (taken from Chapter 8 in the science textbook).
b. Condensation demonstrations (group activity). Teacher will ask students to explain what they are doing, how it relates to the water cycle, and how it relates to real life.
c. Short quiz on basic concepts at the end of week one. Summative assessment A written test at the end of the unit (several short-answer questions and one essay task).
Weights a. Homework: 30%
b. Quiz: 10%
c. End-of-unit test: 60%

Observation Systematic observation of how students behave or perform, documented through sources such as anecdotal records or observational checklists
Questioning Asking focused questions in class to elicit understanding Learning conversations or interviews

Investigative discussions with students about their understanding and sources of confusion
Homework Assignments to elicit understanding Demonstrations, presentations Opportunities for students to show their learning in oral and media performances, exhibitions Projects and investigations Opportunities for students to show connections in their learning through investigation and the production of reports or artifacts
Portfolios Systematic collection of students’ work that demonstrates accomplishments, growth, and reflection on their learning Simulations Simulated or role-playing tasks that encourage students to show connections among concepts and apply their learning in contexts that emulate real life

Descriptions students maintain of the process they are achieving in their learning
Quizzes and tests Opportunities for students to demonstrate their learning through written response
Self-assessments Process in which students reflect on their own performance and use defined criteria for determining the status of their learning
Peer assessments Process in which students evaluate the performance of their peers based on preset criteria

Source: Adapted from Western and Northern Canadian Protocol for Collaboration in Education (WNCP), 2006, p. 17.

TA B L E 2 6 . 3 Assessment Tool Kit

Method Description

Learning logs/

reflective journals

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Electronic Assessment

Methods. Technology is used extensively for assessment of student learning, with programs like WebCT and Blackboard.

ments may require students to carry out an activity or develop a product in order to demonstrate skill or knowledge. For example, instead of completing a test matching vocabulary terms with their definitions, students might be asked to define their stand on a particular issue and write a letter to their representative in Congress using rich vocabulary taken from a list of words the class has been studying.

Will assessment involve the use of technology? Traditionally, computers were used primarily to score tests. Today the role of computers in assessment has expanded to include numerous uses (Bitter & Legacy, 2006; Britten & Cassidy, 2006; Gronlund, 2006). For example, software is available that administers quizzes and tests as well as records scores (e.g., WebCT, Blackboard). Other software programs allow electronic portfolios to be created, and hypermedia programs (e.g., HyperCard) can help students develop their own multimedia presentations. In science classrooms, computers can be used to simulate hands-on investigations (Shavelson & Baxter, 1991). The benefits of providing computers as a part of the learning process vary depending on the age of the students, the kind of computer experiences offered, and the frequency of student access to computers. The potential gains, even for kindergarten and primary children, include improved motor skills, enhanced mathematical thinking, increased creativity, higher scores on tests of critical thinking and problem solving, and higher scores on standardized language assessments (Cardelle-Elawar & Wetzel, 1995; Clements & Sarama, 2003; Denning & Smith, 1997; Haugland & Wright, 1997). Computer-based writing programs can be successfully integrated into process-oriented writing programs in order to:

n provide critical support—or scaffolding—for young writers, enabling them to perform tasks they could not perform by themselves (Clements & Nastasi, 1993);

n allow students to compose longer and more complex stories and worry less about making mistakes

(Davis & Shade, 1994); and

n help students gain confidence in their writing and increase their motivation to write more (Apple

Classrooms of Tomorrow, 1995).

Computers also provide lower-achieving students with a supportive tool for practice while learning, without exposure to public failure (Bredekamp & Rosegrant, 1994).

Creating an assessment plan can be a challenging task, but it has several benefits for the classroom teacher (Nitko & Brookhart, 2007). Knowing how to choose and/or design assessment components

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increases the quality of teaching decisions and offers the teacher more flexibility (Stiggins, Rubel, & Quellmalz, 1986). As teachers gain experience in developing classroom assessments, they develop an appreciation of the strengths and limitations of each type of assessment procedure and improve the accuracy of their interpretations and uses of assessment data (Boothroyd, McMorris, & Pruzek, 1992; Plake, Impara, & Fager, 1993).

Using Assessment Data

In today’s educational climate, assessment should be a dynamic process rather than an “event” signaling completion of instruction. Assessment data help teachers evaluate the effectiveness of instruction and curricula. Frequent and varied classroom assessment also gives teachers an opportunity to learn a great deal about their students. During instruction, the effective teacher continually monitors students’ progress toward instructional goals. If students seem to be struggling to understand a concept or perform a skill, the teacher can adjust instruction to better meet the students’ needs. Assessment facilitates student learning when teachers (Lambert & McCombs, 1998; Shepard, 2000):

n use classroom assessments as a tool to help them become more aware of the knowledge and skills students bring to a task,

n use this knowledge as a starting point for new instruction, and

n monitor students’ changing perceptions and understanding as instruction proceeds.

Students also can learn about themselves through assessment. When assessment is used to provide students with feedback about their own learning, students are given the tools to monitor their learning, make corrections, and develop the habit of continually reviewing and challenging what they know (Costa, 1989, 1996). Effective assessment can help students set personal academic expectations and improve their performance.

Think about the developmental level or the subject you intend to teach, and take a look at Table 26.3. What types of assessments will you use for that specific developmental level or specific subject area? How will you evaluate those types of assessments?

COMMUNICATION OF CLASSROOM ASSESSMENT INFORMATION

At the end of an assessment cycle, the teacher is expected to determine whether each student has met learning goals and to communicate students’ strengths and weaknesses to the students and their parents or guardians. The teacher also may report assessment data for school-level analysis and decision-making purposes, such as deciding whether a student has met the criteria for advancement to the next grade level. In order to effectively communicate assessment information, a teacher needs a clear set of grading procedures, a reporting system, and an understanding of what constitutes appropriate, confidential use of assessment information.

Grading Procedures

Grading students’ work can be a challenging and controversial task (Marzano, 2000; Trumbull & Farr, 2000). Many forms of assigning grades exist, and it is important that a teacher select grading procedures that are both credible and defensible (Guskey & Bailey, 2001; Linn & Gronlund, 2000). Assessment experts generally recommend that teachers keep the meaning of grades clear by basing them on a student’s achievement in meeting prespecified learning goals; however, many teachers confound the grading process by assigning grades that reflect a mixture of attitude, effort, and achievement (Stiggins, Frisbie, & Griswold, 1989; Waltman & Frisbie, 1994). For example, in some classrooms, if a student meets the mastery criteria on a reading assignment but misbehaves during class, the teacher may dock the reading grade by 10% or more. In others, the teacher may award an A to a student who actually earned a B but seemed

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Parent-teacher conferences. Teachers’ responsibilities for assessment include communicating students’ strengths and weaknesses to parents.

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BOX 26.1

Grading Guidelines

1. Explain your grading policies to students early in the year.
2. Set reasonable standards and prepare students to be successful.
3. Base grades on as much objective evidence as possible. Guard against bias.
4. Eliminate the mixing of nongrading variables (e.g., deductions for misbehavior) into an academic grade. 5. Grade consistently.

6. Keep students informed of their standing in class.
7. Give students the benefit of the doubt when determining a borderline grade. All measurement techniques involve error.
8. Weight the assessment categories in a rational way. When deciding how many points a task is worth, consider relevance, relationship to what was taught in class, thinking processes and skills required, fairness to all students, objectivity, and reliability of the assessment results.
9. Consider the impact of failure on students. Use an F to represent low achievement rather than “failing to try” or “failing to turn in assignments.”

10. Be aware of how much a zero can affect a student’s composite score, and consider alternatives to giving a zero.

Sources: Drayer, 1979; Nitko & Brookhart, 2007.

to put in a lot of effort. What do those grades mean? They are no longer a pure reflection of academic achievement or progress toward a specific learning goal. For the steps necessary to increase the credibility and effectiveness of a grading system, see Box 26.1.

Grading model. Teachers have three different models to choose among as they assign grades based on purpose and context: criterion-referenced, norm-referenced, and growth-based grading.

n Criterion-referenced letter grades: In criterion-referenced grading, the grade represents the degree to which learning objectives have been met. Criteria for each grade level usually are specified in advance (e.g., 60% to 69% = D, 70% to 79% = C, 80% to 89% = B, 90% and above = A). In this system, all students could theoretically earn an A if they meet the preset criteria. Criterion-referenced grading is appropriate for giving students feedback about how close they are to meeting learning goals (a formative use) and can also be appropriate for documenting students’ accomplishment of a particular learning goal or standard at the end of a marking period (a summative use).

n Norm-referenced letter grades: In norm-referenced grading, the main influence on a student’s grade is comparison with other students in the class. One common type of norm-referenced grading is grading on the curve. In this system, a student could study very hard and answer 92% of the questions on a test correctly yet still get a C if the class average was around 92%. Teachers typically have used this model when the class average is very low in an attempt to increase the number of students receiving high grades. Still, this type of grading generally damages the relationships among students and between teachers and students, and it also diminishes motivation for most students (Krumboltz & Yeh, 1996). Norm-referenced grading is not appropriate when assessment is viewed an as integral part of a standards-based program, because it does not accurately reflect mastery of knowledge. For example, the mean score of students could be 50%, indicating that few students had mastery of knowledge, yet many students would receive passing or even relatively high grades.

n Growth-based grading involves assigning grades by comparing students’ performance with the teacher’s perceptions of their capability. Students performing at or above the level at which they are perceived to be capable would receive better grades, regardless of their absolute level of attainment or their standing in comparison to their classmates. Because the perceptions of teachers often are subjective and can be tinged with personal bias, objective measures of capability should be included. For example, a student who began a unit with very little prior knowledge (based on a pretest score) but made great strides in learning new material might be given the same grade as a student who actually knows more (based on a posttest score) but began with more prior knowledge. Growth-based grading can be an effective tool in formative assessment when the purpose is

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to provide feedback about how much progress a student has made, but it can be criticized as being an unfair way to determine final grades in a class.

Calculating grades. To calculate grades during a semester or marking period, a teacher must decide whether to use a point-based or percentage-based system. The point grading system is a popular approach in which each test, quiz, assignment, or project is given a certain number of points, depending on its overall importance. For example, a test might be worth 100 points, a writing assignment 50 points, and a quiz 10 points. Points are then awarded based on specific criteria, for example, 2 points per correct answer. The percentage grading system is another option, in which teachers assign grades based on what percentage of information a student has answered or completed correctly. To determine a final grade at the end of a marking period, the teacher averages all percentage grades the student has accumulated.

In both the point system and the percentage system, a student’s score can be converted to a letter grade based on a predetermined cutoff. For example, a student who earned 450 out of 500 possible points or an average of 90% might be given an A. School systems often establish equivalent percentage categories for earning an A, B, C, and so forth; however, the percentages may vary from one school district to the next. In one district, 90% to 100% might be considered A work, while in a neighboring district 94% to 100% might be the range for receiving an A.

Grades and motivation. In the 1960s and 1970s, views of motivation were heavily influenced by behaviorist psychology, in which a schedule of rewards and punishments led to either increasing or decreasing the likelihood of a particular behavior. In that educational climate, teachers and administrators generally believed that assessment and grading motivated students to work hard (Brophy, 2006; WNCP, 2006). In recent years, however, research has shown that the relationship between grades and motivation is more complex and less predictable. Students who receive low grades may withdraw, blame others, decide that the work is “dumb,” or feel helpless (Tomlinson, 2005). Low grades may encourage some students to simply give up on themselves or on school. This does not mean that students should never be given low grades or that they should expect only success in the classroom (Clifford, 1990, 1991). Students should be allowed to make mistakes—and even fail sometimes—as part of the learning process. However, the assessments given in class should support students’ motivation to learn and improve. For example, teachers need to provide a number of assessment tasks so students have the opportunity to learn from their mistakes and show improvement on subsequent tasks. Students are more likely to show improvement if a low grade is accompanied by specific, constructive feedback designed to prevent them from making the same mistakes.

Think about what you will do if a student in your class receives 89.3% on an assignment and 90% is needed for an A. Will you round up, or will you have a firm and consistent policy that the exact grade earned is the exact grade received? How will you justify your decision?

Report Cards and Narrative Reports

Teachers have many methods at their disposal for recording students’ achievement and reporting student progress. Letter grades frequently are used at the upper elementary, middle school, and high school levels, while checklists of skills mastered, abbreviated letter grades (E for excellent, S for satisfactory, or N for needs improvement), or narrative progress reports are used more often at the early childhood level. Narrative progress reports provide detailed, written accounts of each student’s learning and performance in class. Box 26.2 provides an example of a narrative report.

Schools may use a combination of methods on a single report card. For example, letter grades may be used to indicate subject-matter achievement, but a checklist or rating scale may be used to convey additional information about student behavior or work habits, with space provided for narrative comments. School administrators and outside evaluators might need a concise, somewhat quantifiable summary of each student’s progress for accountability and record-keeping purposes, but parents might want more detailed information about the standards mastered, areas of strength and weakness, or their child’s level of attainment compared to that of peers. While a rich description of a student’s learning and development may be much appreciated by parents, such reports can be very time-consuming for teachers to prepare, and skill in writing narrative reports requires practice guided by expert teachers (Nitko & Brookhart, 2007). Modified narrative reports that combine a checklist or rating scale with short written comments are a viable compromise.

Any teacher with access to a personal computer can use a simple spreadsheet program to record and calculate student grades. Gradebook software programs allow teachers to choose among a variety

Assessing Student Learning

Module 26 :

>><<

Behavioral theories of motivation: See page 266.

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Narrative Report

BOX 26.2

Date: November 2008

Child: Xavier Roberts
Class: Kindergarten

Xavier is one of the younger kindergarteners in the class this year. At the beginning of the year, he was very tentative about entering the classroom. Over the course of the first month as Xavier took the time to get to know his new classmates, he became more comfortable and he is now very willing to jump right into one of the morning learning centers when he arrives. Xavier plays well with a variety of children in the class, but he has developed the strongest bond with Nick and Everett. They like to build structures in the block area, play with the Brio trains, and gather on the beanbags in the reading area to look at picture books.

Xavier has shown an interest in reading in the past month, and he often asks for help in sounding out words. He recognizes many sight words and can easily identify the printed names of his classmates when we do our name card activity in morning circle. We’ve been working on letter recognition and letter formation this semester. Xavier recognizes all uppercase and lowercase letters of the alphabet, but he is still learning how to write them independently. He can copy letters accurately but sometimes writes them backward when recalling them on his own. That is very typical for this age.

We’ve been encouraging the children to take responsibility for cleaning up their own materials, and this has been a bit of a struggle with Xavier. He gets wrapped up in the activity he is doing, and it often takes two or three reminders to get him to put away the things he got out and get ready for the next class activity. This will get better with practice. Overall, Xavier is a joy to have in class. He is friendly and curious and has a great imagination.

of options for recording and reporting grades. School districts sometimes provide and require the use of a particular gradebook program. Some of these programs are linked to confidential Web sites where parents can log in (with a username and unique password) to check their children’s grades at any time during the grading period.

Parent-Teacher Communication

Research on home-school communication indicates that parents want to be (Cuttance & Stokes, 2001):

n kept well informed about their children’s progress in both academic and nonacademic areas,

n informed about the perceived strengths and weaknesses of their children, and

n provided pertinent and constructive advice about how they can support their children’s learning.

Parent-teacher conferences are an effective way to build strong home-school connections. They provide parents with a better understanding of children’s learning and give teachers the opportunity to gain valuable insights from parents about their children. Parents and teachers may have very different ideas about the meaning of grades, so clear communication with parents about what grades represent within your classroom is very important (Waltman & Frisbie, 1994). Table 26.4 provides a set of guidelines to follow before, during, and after parent-teacher conferences to make the most of the conference opportunity.

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Before the conference n Have a clear purpose and a clear understanding of the outcome you would like.

TA B L E 2 6 . 4 Guidelines to Follow for Parent-Teacher Conferences

Assessing Student Learning

Module 26 :

ⁿ Plan the points you want to discuss.

ⁿ Plan to have a translator available if necessary.

ⁿ Gather samples of student work, including progress reports and other information related to grades.

ⁿ Anticipate parents’ reactions and questions and jot down notes to address any questions you think may be raised.

ⁿ Identify the student’s strengths and weaknesses.

ⁿ Create a seating arrangement that will be comfortable for adults.

ⁿ Make sure you have pen and paper for yourself and the parents.

ⁿ Make a conference schedule and a “Do Not Disturb” sign to post on your door so you can meet with parents without distraction.

ⁿ Meet parents and escort them to your room.

During the conference Opening:

ⁿ Be prompt and ready to begin.

ⁿ Begin by expressing your appreciation that the parents have come to the conference. Try to establish a tone of goodwill and friendly cooperation as quickly as you can. ⁿ Begin with positive remarks about the student. Talk about the student’s aptitude, special talents, improvements, and potential. Focus on strengths even if the problem you are meeting to discuss is a serious one. Never lose sight of the fact that the child or adolescent is very important to the parents.

During:

ⁿ Give parents your full attention.

ⁿ Use language that will make parents comfortable. Avoid educational jargon.

ⁿ Convey the attitude that the student’s welfare is your primary concern.

ⁿ Discuss specific examples of the student’s work and/or behavior.

ⁿ If you have a problem to discuss, state the problem in simple, factual terms and express your desire to work together for a successful resolution. ⁿ If discussing a recurring problem, let parents know of any improvement you have seen. State what steps you have taken to correct the situation. ⁿ Always allow upset or angry parents to speak first.

Concluding:

ⁿ End the conference by recapping important points.

ⁿ Determine what you will do to follow up after the conference.

ⁿ Express appreciation again for the parents’ concern and the time they have spent with you.

After the conference n Take the time to jot down detailed notes about what was discussed.

ⁿ Write down any steps you agreed to take to follow up.

ⁿ Keep in contact with the parents.

Source: Adapted from Thompson, 2002.

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478 cluster eight classroom assessment

Teachers at all grade levels should make an effort to maintain open lines of communication with parents throughout the school year, not just during the week report cards are distributed. In addition to parent-teacher conferences, home-school communication may include:

n weekly newsletters,

n information and assignments sent home in “Friday folders,”

n information posted on a class or school Web site,

n phone calls, or

n e-mails and notes sent to parents.

Although home-school communication is important, beyond this teachers need to keep students’ educational records confidential. For specific uses of educational records, teachers should be familiar with the Family Educational Rights and Privacy Act (FERPA) of 1974. FERPA, also called the Buckley Amendment, specifies that parents of children under 18 years of age may review the student’s school records; however, the school must have parents’ written permission in order to release information about a student’s educational record to other sources.

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case studies: reflect and evaluate 479

Summary

Describe the ways assessment is used in educational decision making. Assessment data provide information about individual students, quality of teaching, and effectiveness of educational programs. Assessment can be used to diagnose student strengths and weaknesses, match students to appropriate levels of instruction, and help students make appropriate educational and vocational choices that match their skills and interests. It also is used to determine eligibility for admission to various programs and to provide certification of skills. Assessment helps determine the value and effectiveness of instructional programs and provides direction for modifications that will better meet students’ needs.

Explain why developing an assessment plan is an important part of being an effective teacher. A comprehensive assessment plan describes the learning objectives, time frame, and types of assessment and evaluation for each lesson or set of lessons. Specifically, it indicates how often assessments will be used, what typesof assessments will be used (formal, informal, formative, summative, authentic, technology-based, tests, performance-based), how they will be graded, and how the assessment data will be used to provide helpful feedback to students and to help teachers improve their instructional practices.

Discuss the important considerations in determining grading procedures in the classroom. Teachers have three different models to choose from as they assign grades: criterion-referenced, norm-referenced, and growth-based grading. Teachers also must decide whether to calculate grades using a point system or a percentage system. Finally, grading procedures should be designed to support students’ motivation to learn and improve, with measures such as providing frequent assessments with specific feedback.

Discuss different methods for communicating assessment information to parents and students. Assessment information can be communicated to parents and students through report cards that include specific letter grades, a rating scale for student behaviors, or a narrative description of student progress. Parent-teacher conferences allow teachers to communicate exactly what grades indicate in their classroom. In addition to report cards and parent-teacher conferences, home-school communication may include weekly newsletters, information posted on a class or school Web site, phone calls, or notes sent to parents or guardians. All methods of communication should be in accordance with the Family Educational Rights and Privacy Act (FERPA) of 1974.

Key Concepts

assessment assessment plan authentic assessments criterion-referenced letter grades evaluation Family Educational Rights and

Privacy Act (FERPA)

formal assessment formative assessment growth-based grading informal assessment measurement

narrative progress reports norm-referenced letter grades percentage grading system point grading system summative assessment

Case Studies: Refl ect and Evaluate

Early Childhood “Education: The Zoo”

These questions refer to the case study on page 458.

1. Initially, this case might seem to have nothing to do with assessment. As you take a closer look, what types of skills do you see an opportunity to assess?

2. What steps did teacher Sanjay Baterdene take to collect and record assessment information?

3. How can observation be used as a type of formative assessment?

4. What kinds of documentation might be appropriate to use when assessing young children?

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480 case studies: reflect and evaluate

5. Would it be meaningful and/or appropriate to issue a report card with letter grades to communicate assessment information about these preschool children? Why or why not?

6. What are the advantages of providing a narrative report to parents, especially when working with four- and five-year-olds?

7. What evidence did you see that the teachers modified their plans based on information gathered from informal observation of the students? Why is this process important?

8. If Vivian Stanich, the more experienced teacher, wants Sanjay to develop an assessment plan for the coming week, what advice should she offer to guide him through the process of developing an effective plan?

Elementary School: “Writing Wizards”

These questions refer to the case study on page 460.

1. Does teacher Brigita Blaydes appear to have a well-designed assessment plan in place with respect to writing skills? Explain your answer.

2. Which assignments or activities in this fourth-grade classroom might serve as sources of formative assessment?

3. Which activities serve as sources of summative assessment?

4. Describe the ways in which students are involved in the assessment process in Brigita’s classroom.

5. Students in this classroom correct their Grammar Slammer sentences together as a class. Do you think it is necessary for Brigita then to collect these assignments and record a grade for them? Why or why not?

6. Referring to the standards for teacher competence in assessment, which areas do you see as a clear strength for Brigita? Explain your answer.

Middle School: “Assessment: Cafeteria Style”

These questions refer to the case study on page 462.

1. How would you describe the purpose behind Ida’s assessment approach?

2. Are the test option and the project option likely to be equivalent in assessing how well students understand the content presented in the final unit of the semester? Explain your answer.

3. What conclusions about student learning will Ida be able to draw from the test results?

4. What conclusions about student learning will Ida be able to draw from the projects she receives?
5. How could Ida use the assessment data she gathers on the project/test option to make decisions about the way she teaches? to make decisions about the effectiveness of her assessment plan?

6. What options are available to Ida for determining grades to be given on the project?

7. What are some ways information about the students’ performance could be communicated to parents?

High School: “Innovative Assessment Strategies”

These questions refer to the case study on page 464.

1. Referring to the descriptions of assessment practices in Joe’s memo, identify the practices that are examples of formative assessment.

2. Referring to the descriptions of assessment practices in Joe’s memo, identify the practices that are examples of summative assessment.
3. Which standard(s) for teacher competence in educational assessment is Joe addressing in the memo?

4. How would you describe the purpose of the Senior Project used in Oregon?

5. In the New Hampshire humanities course, what advice would you give the teacher about grading the students’ work?

6. Give examples of ways teachers can communicate to parents the assessment information described in the memo.

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